Competence of the deltoid ligament in bimalleolar ankle fractures after medial malleolar fixation

Deltoid ligament injuries: A review of the anatomy, diagnosis and treatments

PURPOSE

Ankle sprains remain the most common soft tissue injury presenting to Emergency Departments. Recently, there has been increased awareness and reporting of deltoid ligament injuries in association with injuries to the lateral ligament complex as well as with fibula fractures. This article reviews the currently available literature on the anatomy of the deltoid ligament, clinical and radiological diagnosis of injuries to the deltoid ligament and treatment recommendations.

METHODS

A literature review was conducted for keywords associated with deltoid ligament injuries. MEDLINE, PubMed and Embase databases were utilised for this search. Articles were included if involving an adult population, were English-language, were related to deltoid ligament injuries (with or without associated injuries) and reported on patho-anatomy, clinical or radiological diagnosis or treatment methods.

RESULTS

A total of 93 articles were assessed for relevance from the database search, and 47 were included after the removal of irrelevant articles and duplicates. Several studies reported on the clinical findings of deltoid ligament injury, as well as the radiographic analysis. Arthroscopy was considered the gold standard of diagnosis, with authors reporting on the potential benefit of performing arthroscopic repair or reconstruction at the same time. There were no studies that provided a system for the classification of deltoid ligament injury or larger studies of treatment pathways. Long-term studies of the incidence of instability in deltoid ligament injuries were not available.

CONCLUSION

There is limited evidence available regarding deltoid ligament injuries, particularly in terms of treatment options, either in isolation or with concomitant injuries. Long-term follow-up studies are needed to obtain more accurate data on the number of complications.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV.

Modified double-row suture bridge technique for anterior colliculus fractures combined with deltoid ligament injury: a retrospective study

BACKGROUND

The management of anterior colliculus fractures in combination with deltoid ligament injuries is a topic of debate, and there is a need to improve surgical outcomes. The purpose of the present study was to describe the application of a modified double-row suture bridge technique and evaluate its early clinical outcomes in the management of anterior colliculus fracture combined with deltoid ligament injury.

METHODS

From 2020 to 2022, 12 patients with anterior colliculus fracture combined with deltoid ligament injury were treated using a modified double-row suture bridge technique. For clinical outcome evaluation, objective data are presented through clinical examination findings; radiographic assessments, including X-rays and computed tomography (CT); and follow-up analysis utilizing American Orthopaedic Foot & Ankle Society ankle‒hindfoot (AOFAS) scores, Olerud Molander Ankle Scores (OMAS), and visual analogue scale (VAS) scores. Preoperative and follow-up scores were compared with Student's t test. (p < .05).

RESULTS

The mean age of the patients was 52.67 ± 9.42 years (range: 39-74). The mean duration of follow-up was 14.42 ± 1.51 months (range: 12-17). At the final follow-up, the mean AOFAS score (P < 0.001) improved to 91.50 ± 2.65 points (range: 87-96), the mean OMAS (P < 0.001) improved to 77.08 ± 3.97 points (range: 70-85), and the mean VAS score (P < 0.001) improved to 0.25 ± 0.45 points (range: 0-1). Nine patients achieved excellent outcomes, and three achieved good outcomes according to the AOFAS score. Follow-up imaging evaluation indicated satisfactory alignment of the fracture and complete healing. Clinical examination suggested good mobility of the ankle. At the last follow-up, ankle dorsiflexion mobility was 14-18 degrees, plantar flexion mobility was 42-45 degrees, inversion mobility was 27-32 degrees, and eversion mobility was 22-25 degrees.

CONCLUSIONS

The modified double-row suture bridge technique is effective for achieving anatomic reduction of anterior colliculus fractures, and the technique also provides substantial benefit to the injured deltoid ligament. With this technique, the clinical outcomes can be significant and encouraging, indicating a new stage in its application and development.

A clinical guide to the medial ligaments of the ankle: Anatomy, function, diagnosis of injuries and treatment of instability-a narrative review

BACKGROUND

The aim was to provide an update on anatomy and function of the medial ankle ligaments, diagnosis of their injuries and treatment of medial ankle instability.

METHODS

Literature search on PubMed.

RESULTS

Injuries to the deltoid ligament are not uncommon in relation to malleolar fractures and ankle sprains. Chronic instability may lead to ankle osteoarthritis. However, there is no consensus on diagnostic criteria (clinically, by imaging and by arthroscopy), on indications for non-operative and operative treatment, and on standards for repair and reconstruction of the ligament complex. There is no current evidence to support acute repair of deltoid ligament injury. Reports on the effect of isolated deltoid ligament reconstruction are very sparse.

CONCLUSION

There is a need for a focused effort to establish evidence for all aspects of deltoid ligament injury.

Operative vs Nonoperative Management of Unstable Medial Malleolus Fractures: A Randomized Clinical Trial

Importance

Unstable ankle fractures are routinely managed operatively. However, because of soft tissue and implant-related complications, recent literature has reported on the nonoperative management of well-reduced medial malleolus fractures after fibular stabilization, but with limited evidence supporting the routine application.

Objective

To assess the superiority of internal fixation of well-reduced (displacement ≤2 mm) medial malleolus fractures compared with nonfixation after fibular stabilization.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This superiority, pragmatic, parallel, prospective randomized clinical trial was conducted from October 1, 2017, to August 31, 2021. A total of 154 adult participants (≥16 years) with a closed, unstable bimalleolar or trimalleolar ankle fracture requiring surgery at an academic major trauma center in the UK were assessed. Exclusion criteria included injuries with no medial-sided fracture, open fractures, neurovascular injury, and the inability to comply with follow-up. Data analysis was performed in July 2022 and confirmed in September 2023.

Interventions

Once the lateral (and where appropriate, posterior) malleolus had been fixed and satisfactory intraoperative reduction of the medial malleolus fracture was confirmed by the operating surgeon, participants were randomly allocated to fixation (n = 78) or nonfixation (n = 76) of the medial malleolus.

Main Outcome and Measure

Olerud-Molander Ankle Score (OMAS) 1 year after randomization (range, 0-100 points, with 0 indicating worst possible outcome and 100 indicating best possible outcome).

Results

Among 154 randomized participants (mean [SD] age, 56.5 [16.7] years; 119 [77%] female), 144 (94%) completed the trial. At 1 year, the median OMAS was 80.0 (IQR, 60.0-90.0) in the fixation group compared with 72.5 (IQR, 55.0-90.0) in the nonfixation group (P = .17). Complication rates were comparable. Significantly more patients in the nonfixation group developed a radiographic nonunion (20% vs 0%; P < .001), with 8 of 13 clinically asymptomatic; 1 patient required surgical reintervention for this. Fracture type and reduction quality appeared to influence fracture union and patient outcome.

Conclusions and Relevance

In this randomized clinical trial comparing internal fixation of well-reduced medial malleolus fractures with nonfixation, after fibular stabilization, fixation was not superior according to the primary outcome. However, 1 in 5 patients developed a radiographic nonunion after nonfixation, and although the reintervention rate to manage this was low, the future implications are unknown. These results support selective nonfixation of anatomically reduced medial malleolar fractures after fibular stabilization.

Trial Registration

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03362229.

Successful Outcomes With Nonoperative Treatment and Immediate Weightbearing Despite Stress-Positive Radiographs in Isolated Distal Fibula (OTA/AO 44B) Fractures

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether a nonoperative management protocol results in equivalent outcomes in isolated OTA/AO 44B (Weber B) fractures without initial medial clear space (MCS) widening regardless of stress radiography findings.

METHODS

DESIGN

Prospective cohort.

SETTING

Level 1 academic trauma center.

PATIENT SELECTION CRITERIA

Nonoperatively managed patients with isolated OTA/AO 44B fractures and MCS ≤4 mm on initial non-weightbearing injury radiographs between from January 2018 and January 2022 were included. All patients underwent emergency department gravity stress radiographs and those with widening were considered the widening cohort and those without the non-widening cohort.

OUTCOME MEASURE AND COMPARISONS

MCS measurements on weightbearing radiographs were obtained at first follow-up, 6 weeks, 12 weeks, and 6 months postinjury, were considered indicative of instability if >4 mm and were compared between cohorts.; American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society ankle-hindfoot scores were also compared between cohorts.

RESULTS

Sixty-nine patients were studied. None of the 38 patients (55%) with widening on gravity stress radiographs demonstrated widening with weightbearing radiographs at any time point. Mean MCS measurement differences between the 2 cohorts were statistically significant for all time points ( P = 0.012); however, with a model adjusted mean MCS value of 2.7 mm for the nonwidening cohort and 2.9 mm for the widening cohort, these are not clinically significant. There was no statistically significant difference in overall final American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society scores between the 2 groups ( P = 0.451). In addition, statistical equivalence using Schuirmann 2 one-sided tests was achieved between the 2 groups. Both cohorts had mean American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society scores representing excellent outcomes at the final follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with isolated OTA/AO 44B fractures without MCS widening on initial injury radiographs did not demonstrate instability on subsequent weightbearing radiographs and had equivalent outcomes regardless of gravity stress radiography findings when treated nonoperatively. Weightbearing radiographs at the initial follow-up appear to be a reliable assessment of ankle stability in these injuries and are an appropriate alternative to painful and time-consuming stress radiography.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic Level II. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Residual Medial Ankle Pain After the Delayed Union of a Lateral Malleolus Fracture: A Case Report

A 17-year-old girl sprained her left ankle and was diagnosed with a lateral malleolar fracture. She was treated conservatively for six months but had medial ankle pain with activity. Imaging revealed an oblique lateral malleolar fracture, with posterolateral displacement and partial fusion of the bone fragments, and bone marrow edema on the medial articular surface of the talus and medial malleolus. We diagnosed ankle instability due to delayed union with a displacement of the lateral malleolus, which caused an osteochondral lesion. We performed arthroscopic and open surgery eight months after the injury, reducted the lateral malleolus anatomically, and fixed it with a plate. Postoperatively, the pain improved rapidly, and the bone marrow edema had almost disappeared on an MRI. In this case, we think rotational instability of the ankle mortise caused abnormal pressure and continuous stress on the medial malleolus after injury, which may have contributed to persistent medial ankle pain.

Kirschner Wire Internal Fixation of the Medial Tibiotalar Joint for Indirect Repair of Deltoid Ligament Injury: A Retrospective Comparative Study

OBJECTIVE

Ankle joint fractures are often accompanied by medial deltoid ligament rupture. There is controversy over whether or how to treat deltoid ligament rupture. This study was aimed to explore the feasibility of repairing the medial deltoid ligament using Kirschner wire internal fixation of the medial tibiotalar joint combined with external fixation.

METHODS

Forty-six patients with ankle fractures involving deltoid ligament rupture, treated between October 2012 and February 2021, were retrospectively evaluated. Twenty-five patients were treated with a Kirschner wire to fix the tibiotalar joint and indirectly repair the deltoid ligament as the repaired group. Twenty-one patients underwent reduction and fixation of internal and external malleolus fractures, and the deltoid ligament was not repaired in the unrepaired group. The American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) ankle-hindfoot score, visual analog scale (VAS), Medical Outcomes Short Form 36-item questionnaire score (SF-36), and Medial clear space perpendicular (preoperative, postoperative, final follow-up) were used for functional evaluations and reduction assessments. Mann-Whitney test were used to compare the differences between the groups.

RESULTS

The follow-up time was 13-112 months with a mean of 59.32 months for the repaired group and 11-94 months with a mean of 53.43 months for the unrepaired group. There was no significant difference in the operative time or intraoperative blood loss between the two groups (p > 0.05). At the last follow-up, the AOFAS ankle-hindfoot and SF-36 scores of the repaired group were significantly higher than those of the non-repaired group (p < 0.05). Moreover, the VAS pain score was significantly lower and the Medial clear space perpendicular was significantly narrower in the repaired group than that in the unrepaired group.

CONCLUSION

Tibiotalar joint fixation using Kirschner wires is a simple and effective technique that can indirectly reduce and repair the deltoid ligament and stabilize the ankle.

Indications and Interpretation of Stress Radiographs in Supination External Rotation Ankle Fractures

Introduction In supination external rotation (SER) ankle fractures with an intact medial malleolus, stability hinges upon the competence of the deltoid ligament. The purpose of this study is to define the indications and establish criteria for a positive stress radiograph. Methods This is a prospective study of 27 isolated SER lateral malleolar fractures with a reduced ankle mortise. Pain and swelling were noted about the medial ankle, followed by an ultrasound to evaluate the integrity of the deltoid ligament. Static and stress radiographs were performed on both the fractured and contralateral ankles. Results Fourteen patients were normal on ultrasound examination, eight had partial tears, and five had full-thickness tears. The difference in the level of pain to palpation postero-medially between the complete tear (7 +/- 1) and the partial tear (1.3 +/- 2.4) group was significant (p < .001). The negative predictive values for medial swelling and tenderness were 93% and 100%, respectively. Sensitivity and specificity for medial clear space on stress radiograph (fracture (fx)) > 5.0 mm were both 100% while a 2.5 mm or greater change to the contralateral side yielded a sensitivity of 100% and specificity of 95%. Conclusion The lack of significant medial pain, as well as swelling, implies the absence of a complete ligament tear and eliminates the need for stress examination. Conversely, the presence of medial signs of injury is suggestive, but not pathognomonic for a complete deltoid tear. Medial clear space (MCS) variability prompts to recommend a minimum of 2.5 mm on stress radiographs compared to the contralateral side as indirect evidence for a complete tear of the deltoid ligament.

Role of the posterior deep deltoid ligament in ankle fracture stability: A biomechanical cadaver study

BACKGROUND

The deltoid ligament is a key component of ankle fracture stability. Clinical tests to assess deltoid ligament injury have low specificity. In supination external-rotation (SER) type-IV ankle fractures, there is either a medial malleolus fracture or deltoid ligament injury. These injuries are often considered unstable, requiring surgical stabilisation. We look to identify the anatomical basis for this instability. This study investigates the anatomical basis for such instability by re-creating SER type ankle fractures in a standardised cadaveric study model, investigating the anatomical basis for such instability.

AIM

To investigate the anatomical basis for fracture instability in SER type ankle fractures.

METHODS

Four matched pairs of cadaveric limbs were tested for stability both when axially loaded and under external rotation stress. Four matched pairs of cadaveric limbs (8 specimens) were tested for stability when axially loaded to 750 N with a custom rig. Specimens were tested through increasing stages of SER injury in a stepwise fashion before restoring the lateral side with open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF). Clinical photographs and radiographs were recorded at each step. We defined instability in accordance with well accepted radiological parameters: > 4 mm medial clear space opening on a mortise-view radiograph or > 7 degrees of talar tilt.

RESULTS

All specimens with an intact posterior deep deltoid ligament were stable. Once the posterior deep deltoid ligament was sectioned there was instability in all specimens. Stabilisation of the lateral side prevented talar shift, but not talar tilt.

CONCLUSION

If the posterior deep deltoid ligament is intact then SER fractures can be managed without surgery. If the posterior deep deltoid is incompetent, ORIF and cautious rehabilitation is recommended because the talus can still tilt in the mortise.

Arthroscopically Assisted Reduction and Fixation of Deltoid Ligament Avulsion Fracture From Medial Malleolus

Ankle fractures are one of the most common orthopaedic injuries. The surgical principle is to restore anatomy and stability of the ankle mortise. Repositioning of the talus under the tibia with normalization of the medial clear space is mandatory for a good outcome. Deltoid ligament injuries can present as an avulsion fracture of the medial malleolus. The purpose of this Technical Note is to describe the details of arthroscopically assisted reduction and fixation of deltoid ligament avulsion fracture from medial malleolus. This can restore the medial stability of the ankle.

Is fixation of the medial malleolus necessary in unstable ankle fractures?

INTRODUCTION

It is unclear whether the medial malleolus in unstable bi- and tri- malleolar ankle fractures without medial talar displacement should be addressed surgically. This study reviews a fixation protocol for the medial malleolar component of unstable bi- or tri- malleolar ankle fractures.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Two hundred fifty-seven patients who sustained bi- (AO/OTA 44-B2) or tri- (AO/OTA 44-B3) malleolar ankle fractures between January 2005 and August 2019 at two Level 1 trauma centers were retrospectively identified. Medial malleolar fractures were defined as anterior, supra or intercollicular fractures based on the exit of the posterior fracture line. Fixation of the medial malleolar component was performed based on surgical algorithm. Only large or significantly displaced medial malleolar fractures were fixed if the soft tissues were amenable. Primary outcome measure was the presence of medial-sided ankle pain after operative or non-operative treatment of the medial malleolar fracture after a minimum follow up of 6 months. Presence of pain was defined by a pain score of 3 or higher on a 10-point VAS pain score at the site of the medial malleolar fracture.

RESULTS

Significantly more patients in the supracollicular group reported the presence of pain when this type was not fixed versus fixed (28 vs 14%, p = 0.0094). Significantly more patients in the anterior collicular subgroup reported the presence of pain when this type was fixed versus not fixed (40 vs 10%, p = 0.0438). There was no difference in the number of patients reporting pain in the intercollicular group when comparing those who were fixed versus not fixed, (21 vs 22%, p = 1.000).

CONCLUSIONS

When examining post-operative pain, not all medial malleolar fractures require fixation when appropriately selected based on fracture pattern. Only 10% of patients with anterior collicular fractures reported pain after non operative management. Unsurprisingly, more patients in the supracollicular fractures reported pain without surgery compared to with surgery. Fracture pattern should be considered in the treatment algorithm for the medial malleolar component in bi- and tri- malleolar fractures.

The Lateral Drawer Test: A New Clinical Test to Assess Mortise Instability in Weber B Fibula Fractures

Background

Assessment of mortise stability is paramount in determining appropriate management of ankle fractures. Although instability is readily apparent in bimalleolar or trimalleolar ankle fractures, determination of instability in the isolated Weber B fibula fracture often requires further investigation. Prior authors have demonstrated poor predictive value of physical examination findings such as tenderness, ecchymosis, and swelling with instability. The goal of this study is to test the validity of a new clinical examination maneuver, the lateral drawer test, against the gravity stress view (GSV) in a cohort of patients with Weber B fibula fractures. Secondary goals included assessing pain tolerability of the lateral drawer test, as well as testing interobserver reliability.

Methods

Sixty-two patients presenting with isolated fibula fractures were prospectively identified by an orthopaedic nurse practitioner or resident. Three nonweightbearing radiographic views of the ankle as well as a GSV were obtained. Radiographs were not visualized before conducting the lateral drawer test. Two foot and ankle fellowship-trained orthopaedic surgeons performed and graded the lateral drawer test. Radiographs were then examined and medial clear space (MCS) was measured. Visual analog scale (VAS) pain scores were obtained before and after testing. The results of the lateral drawer test were compared with radiographic measurements of MCS on GSV. A cadaveric experiment was devised to assess interobserver reliability of the lateral drawer test.

Results

Thirty (48%) of 62 consecutively enrolled patients demonstrated radiographic instability with widening of the MCS ≥5 mm on GSV. When correlated with MCS measurement, the lateral drawer test demonstrated a sensitivity of 83%, specificity of 97%, positive predictive value (PPV) of 96%, and negative predictive value (NPV) of 86%. There was a strong correlation between the lateral drawer test grade and amount of MCS widening (Spearman correlation ρ = 0.82, P < .005). Patients tolerated the maneuver well with an average increase of 0.7 on the VAS pain scale. Testing of 2 observers utilizing the cadaveric model demonstrated a Cohen's Kappa coefficient of 0.7 indicating moderate interobserver agreement.

Conclusion

The lateral drawer test demonstrates high sensitivity, specificity, PPV, and NPV with moderate interobserver reliability compared with the MCS on GSV in patients presenting with Weber B fibula fractures. Although further external validation is required, the lateral drawer test may offer an adjunct tool via physical examination to help determine mortise stability.

Level of Evidence

Level II, Prospective Cohort Study.

Superficial Deltoid Ligament and Deep Deltoid Ligament Play Equally Important Roles in the Stability of Isolated Lateral Malleolus (OTA/AO 44-B1) Fractures: A Biomechanical Study

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the individual contributions to stability of the superficial and deep deltoid ligaments in the setting of SER IV ankle fractures.

METHODS

Nineteen total cadaveric specimens were used. SER IV injuries were created with the rupture of either the superficial (SER IV-S) (n = 9) or deep deltoid (SER IV-D) (n = 10). These were tested by applying an external rotation force (1 Nm, 2 Nm, 3 Nm, and 4 Nm). Changes in the position of the talus were recorded with a 3D motion tracker. Injury conditions were compared with a 4-step general linear model with repeated measures. Injury condition was also compared with the intact state and to each other using 2-tailed t tests.

RESULTS

The general linear model showed that increased loading had a significant effect with axial rotation (P = 0.02) and sagittal translation (P = 0.003). SER IV-S and SER IV-D showed significantly greater instability compared with the intact state in axial rotation (1 Nm, 2 Nm, and 3 Nm). SER IV-S and SER IV-D did not significantly differ from each other.

CONCLUSIONS

SER IV fracture patterns can be unstable with isolated injury to either the superficial or deep deltoid. This challenges the notion that deep deltoid rupture is necessary. Further clinical studies would help quantify the consequences of this instability.

Follow-up Evaluation of Medial Clear Space and Talar Tilt After Bimalleolar Equivalent Fracture Fixation Without Primary Deltoid Repair

BACKGROUND

We sought first to determine the efficacy of lateral ankle fixation alone in maintenance of medial clear space and talar valgus in bimalleolar equivalent ankle fractures not receiving primary deltoid repair, and second to assess perceived outcomes via the Foot and Ankle Outcome Score. To our knowledge, no study has quantified the reduction of medial clear space and talar valgus in bimalleolar equivalent ankle fractures receiving lateral ankle fixation alone.

METHODS

We compared preoperative, initial postoperative, and greater than 1-year follow-up radiographs of medial clear space and talar valgus in individuals who received lateral ankle fixation alone in bimalleolar equivalent ankle fractures. Subjective outcomes were measured via the Foot and Ankle Outcome Score.

RESULTS

Thirty-seven patients participated in the study and showed a statistically significant reduction of medial clear space and restoration of talar position, and maintenance with this fixation method during follow-up in patients with bimalleolar equivalent ankle fractures. Adjunctively, patients perceived their outcomes to be satisfactory, as demonstrated by the results of the Foot and Ankle Outcome Score.

CONCLUSIONS

We aimed to assess the efficacy of lateral ankle fixation in the maintenance of medial clear space and talar valgus reduction at midterm follow-up. Although some authors contend that primary deltoid repair in bimalleolar equivalent ankle fractures is warranted, these midterm study results suggest that isolated lateral ankle fixation is adequate for medial ankle stabilization in bimalleolar equivalent fractures, and thus primary deltoid repair is not indicated.

Tibiofibular Space Widening Assessment With a Ball-Tipped Probe in a Syndesmosis Injury Model

Assessment of syndesmotic instability is not precise with existing evaluation methods. This study was conducted to investigate the use of a ball-tipped probe under arthroscopy for quantitative assessment of tibiofibular space widening in a syndesmosis injury model. The test specimens were 5 uninjured ankles from Thiel-fixed cadavers of 2 male subjects and 3 female subjects of mean age of 82.4 years at death. The ball-tipped probe consisted of a metal probe having a ball at each end with diameters ranging from of 1.5 mm to 5.0 mm, in increments of 0.5 mm. The tibiofibular joint was observed arthroscopically as the largest-diameter ball probe as possible was inserted into its anterior third, middle, or posterior third portion with the ankle in natural plantarflexion or under external rotational stress. These measurements were performed for the uninjured ankle and then performed following Bassett's ligament sectioning, anterior inferior tibiofibular ligament sectioning, interosseous membrane distal 15 cm sectioning, or deltoid ligament, and posterior inferior tibiofibular ligament sectioning, with the sections added in this sequence and each followed by a similar assessment. The results of quantitative assessment of tibiofibular space widening with the ball-tipped probe in the syndesmosis injury model under arthroscopy were that the maximum possible diameter of ball probe that could be inserted was 1.5 to 2.0 mm in the uninjured state, 3.0 to 3.5 mm in the sectioned anterior inferior tibiofibular ligament model, and 5.0 mm in the severe-state model. The ball probe can serve as an effective tool for quantitative assessment of the intraoperative instability in cases of syndesmosis injury.

Deltoid Rupture in Ankle Fractures: To Repair or Not to Repair?

The most common injury mechanism for ankle fractures with concomitant deltoid ligament injury is a supination external rotation type 4 trauma. In the acute setting, malalignment, ecchymosis, and profound edema of the affected ankle can be found. Clinical examination is a poor indicator for deltoid ligament injury. There is a lack of high-quality studies with suturing the deltoid as the primary question. The authors found 4 comparative studies that found it unnecessary to explore and to reconstruct the deltoid ligament and 4 comparative studies that find it unnecessary to explore and to reconstruct the deltoid ligament.

Fibula fractures management

Isolated distal fibula fractures represent the majority of ankle fractures. These fractures are often the result of a low-energy trauma with external rotation and supination mechanism. Diagnosis is based on clinical signs and radiographic exam. Stress X-rays have a role in detecting associated mortise instability. Management depends on fracture type, displacement and associated ankle instability. For simple, minimally displaced fractures without ankle instability, conservative treatment leads to excellent results. Conservative treatment must also be considered in overaged unhealthy patients, even in unstable fractures. Surgical treatment is indicated when fracture or ankle instability are present, with several techniques described. Outcome is excellent in most cases. Complications regarding wound healing are frequent, especially with plate fixation, whereas other complications are uncommon.

Therapeutic approach to combined deltoid ligament disruption with lateral malleolus fracture: Current evidence and literature review

Ankle fractures are among the most common injuries treated by orthopaedic traumatologists. These fractures range from stable, simple injuries to complex, multi-planar unstable ones. Osseo-ligamentous structures play a paramount role in maintaining the stability of the ankle joint. The deltoid ligament is among the most important ankle static stabilizers. Rupture of this ligament along with a lateral malleolar fracture is considered by many as an unstable type of injury and usually requires surgical treatment (bi-malleolar equivalent). Left untreated, it may lead to chronic pain, loss of function and secondary arthritis. Due to lack of high-quality evidence, there are no welldefined, well-accepted criteria for the diagnosis and treatment for treating this type of injury.

High incidence of spring ligament laxity in ankle fractures with complete deltoid ruptures and secondary first ray instability

AIMS

To assess the incidence of spring ligament failure in patients who have complete deltoid ruptures.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

The authors retrospectively analysed ankle fractures in our trauma database from January 2015 to January 2019. 61 patients who sustained ankle fractures with complete deltoid ligament ruptures based on an AP ankle radiographs with increased medial joint space were identified. 25 patients attended clinic for assessment. Of these, 5 were found to have gross planovalgus with pre-existing spring ligament laxity in the uninjured control foot and these were excluded from the analysis. 20 patients were assessed for spring ligament failure /laxity. For each patient, the uninjured foot was used as the control.

RESULTS

The TMT instability score and the lateral translation score showed statistically significant increases in the injured compared to the uninjured foot. The ratio of increase in both TMT instability and lateral translation scores (strain) in the injured versus the uninjured foot was assessed. A strong correlation (+0.62 pearson correlation coefficient) was found between the two ratios.

CONCLUSION

All 20 patients showed increased spring ligament laxity and 19 patients showed increased TMT instability. Our results show that with complete deltoid rupture, there is likely greater disruption of the medial ligamentous structures of the foot than previously recognised. The degree of increase in the spring ligament strain also correlates with the degree of strain at the plantar TMT joint ligaments, and thus first ray instability. This finding has significant implications for the long-term assessment and management of ankle fractures involving complete deltoid disruption. Early intervention with orthotics in this cohort may prevent progressive destabilisation of the midfoot and the first ray. This evolving understanding may lead to the prospect of earlier surgical intervention to reconstitute the integrity of the spring ligament and protect the foot progressing to stage 2 AAFD.

[Unstable injuries of the deltoid ligament complex in ankle fractures : How to diagnose, how to treat?]

Unstable injuries of the deltoid ligament complex can have a substantial negative effect on the prognosis and treatment of ankle injuries. Lesions of the deltoid ligament are often overlooked at the initial presentation, both as isolated ruptures and in combination with more complex injuries of the ankle. Neglected unstable injuries of medial ankle ligaments may result in chronic instability, especially following correct treatment of fractures and lateral ligament injuries. These are accompanied by reduced ankle mobility, persisting pain, reduced load bearing and osteoarthritis. Despite the possible subsequent damage, the need for surgical repair of the deltoid ligament in patients with ankle fractures is controversially discussed. Although in most cases of ligament injuries of the upper ankle joint conservative treatment leads to very good results, there is increased interest in acute surgical treatment particularly for unstable injuries in order to avoid secondary instability and the associated sequelae. When surgical treatment should be given priority over conservative treatment has not yet been sufficiently clarified. This article gives an overview of the diagnosis and treatment of injuries of the deltoid ligament complex in patients with ankle fractures based on the current literature.

Acute Deltoid Ligament Repair in Ankle Fractures

There is no consensus on whether the deltoid ligament must be repaired in ankle fractures. Recent studies have shown better early radiologic results when the deltoid ligament is repaired, but no differences in long term functional outcomes. However, there is evidence suggesting that patients with high fibular fractures or injuries with concomitant syndesmotic instability may benefit from repair. The authors recommend repairing the deltoid ligament complex in bimalleolar equivalent fractures associated with syndesmotic or gross multiligamentous instability as well as in heavier patients with greater mechanical requirements.

Value of Ultrasound for Stability Assessment of Isolated Lateral Malleolar Fractures Compared to Stress Radiography and Arthroscopy

Background

This study was performed to evaluate the value of using ultrasound for stability assessment of isolated lateral malleolar fractures compared to simple X-ray, stress radiography, and arthroscopy.

Methods

This is a prospective cohort study with 25 consecutive patients who underwent an arthroscopic examination and subsequent surgery for isolated lateral malleolar ankle fractures. Before operation, simple and external rotation stress radiographs were obtained. Ultrasound was performed to assess the medial deltoid ligament prior to operation. Arthroscopic findings were used as reference standards. Sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictability were calculated and compared using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis for simple radiography, stress radiography, and ultrasound examination.

Results

The sensitivity and specificity of ultrasound for tears of the deep deltoid ligament were 94.74% and 66.67%, respectively. But, they were both 100% for complete tears of the ligament. ROC curve analysis showed that the ultrasound examination was significantly more accurate than simple and stress radiography.

Conclusions

Ultrasound could be used to assess the instability of isolated lateral malleolar fractures. Commonly used stress radiography appears to overrate the need for operative treatment.

[Effectiveness of repairing the deep layer of deltoid ligament by suture anchor repair method in treatment of mixed medial injury associated with ankle fractures]

Objective

To explore the necessity of repairing the deep layer of deltoid ligament in the treatment of mixed medial injury associated with ankle fractures.

Methods

Between January 2016 and December 2018, 12 patients with mixed medial injury associated with ankle fractures were treated with the fixation of the lateral malleolus by bone plates, the fixation of the anterior colliculus of medial malleolus by cannulated screws, and the repair of the deltoid ligament by suture anchors. There were 8 males and 4 females, with an average age of 42 years (range, 18-56 years). According to the Lauge-Hansen classification criteria, there were 11 cases of supination-external rotation type and 1 case of pronation-external rotation type. According to the Weber classification criteria, all cases were type B. The time from injury to operation was 3-6 days, with an average of 4.7 days. In each patient, X-ray films of anteroposterior and lateral views and mortise view of ankle were taken postoperatively. The motion range of ankle joints was observed. The function of the ankle and the outcome of the treatment were evaluated according to the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) scoring system, Olerud-Molander scoring system, and the visual analogue scale (VAS) score.

Results

All cases were followed up 12-42 months (mean, 28 months). The 12 patients returned to their pre-injury jobs. Five patients with sports injury completely recovered to their pre-injury motor function. No patient experienced persistent medial ankle pain or ankle instability. At last follow-up, the ankle range of motion in dorsiflexion was 9°-25° (mean, 17.96°), which was 0°-11° (mean, 4.02°) less than that in normal side; the range of motion in plantar flexion was 38°-50° (mean, 43.90°), which was 0°-7° (mean, 2.53°) less than that in normal side. The AOFAS score was 88-100 (mean, 96.7); the Olerud-Molander score was 90-100 (mean, 96.5); the VAS score was 0-3 (mean, 1.1).

Conclusion

It is necessary to repair the deep layer of deltoid ligament in the mixed medial injuries associated with ankle fracture, which include anterior colliculus fracture and deep deltoid ligament injury. A better outcome can be achieved by employing the suture anchor repair method.

Medial tenderness revisited: Is medial ankle tenderness predictive of instability in isolated lateral malleolus fractures?

INTRODUCTION

Determining deltoid ligament incompetence in supination external rotation (SER) injuries commonly relies on stress radiography, given several studies demonstrating low predictive value of physical examination. Stress radiography can be difficult to obtain and may result in suboptimal radiographs with equivocal determination of stability. This study revisits the concept of medial ankle tenderness and its association with mortise instability.

METHODS

Patients who presented with an isolated lateral malleolus fracture underwent prospective data collection. VAS scores were recorded with palpation at the lateral malleolar fracture site, anterior deltoid ligament, and posterior deltoid ligament. Three non-weightbearing radiographs of the ankle and a gravity stress view were obtained. Statistical analysis was performed to determine a correlation between tenderness and instability defined as MCS widening > 4 mm on gravity stress x-ray.

RESULTS

51 patients met inclusion criteria. Group I (stable) and Group II (unstable) demonstrated no difference in tenderness over the lateral malleolus (p = 0.94) or anterior deltoid (p = 0.12), but patients in Group II reported significantly more tenderness over the posterior deltoid (p = 0.03). Taking the higher pain score from either anterior or posterior deltoid palpation, patients with unstable ankle fractures reported significantly more tenderness with medial palpation (p = 0.02). The relative risk of having an unstable ankle fracture with any tenderness to palpation over either the anterior or posterior deltoid ligament was 1.77 (95% CI 1.03 - 3.06, P = 0.039). When comparing no pain versus the presence of any pain with palpation medially, the sensitivity for any medial tenderness to detect an unstable ankle fracture was 0.76 (specificity 0.59, PPV 0.79, NPV 0.56).

CONCLUSION

Patients with any medial tenderness were at significantly higher risk of having an unstable SER ankle fracture in this study, but strict reliance on the presence or absence of medial tenderness without stress radiographs would lead to an unacceptable number of both false positive and false negative determinations of instability. However, our findings suggest that medial tenderness is associated with instability. The 0.79 PPV of any medial tenderness for instability may be useful to cast doubt on equivocal stress radiography and prompt surgeons to repeat stress radiography or shorten the interval for radiographic follow up.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Diagnostic study, Level II-1 (development of diagnostic criteria on basis of consecutive patients [with universally applied reference "gold" standard]).

Physiologic widening of the medial clear space: What's normal?

BACKGROUND

Literature has validated the use of stress radiographs for evaluation of ankle stability. However, to our knowledge no study has reported the amount of physiological widening that occurs with manual external rotation stress test in uninjured ankles. The purpose of this study was to assess the amount of medial clear space widening that occurs with a manual external rotation stress test in uninjured ankles.

METHODS

A cohort of adult patients undergoing operative fixation of unstable ankle fractures were prospectively enrolled to have their contralateral ankle undergo manual external rotation stress examination. Fluoroscopic images of the unaffected ankle were performed in the OR. A non-stressed mortise view and manual external rotation stress view were obtained with a standardized marker to correct for magnification differences. The images were de-identified, presented in a randomized order and reviewers who were blinded. Each reviewer measured the medial clear space.

RESULTS

Thirty fluoroscopic images on fifteen patients were obtained. The mean medial clear space on the non-stressed mortise view was 3.1 mm (SD-0.69; Range 1.9 to 4.2, 95% CI [2.75, 3.45]) versus a mean of 3.2 mm (SD-0.71; Range 2.0 to 4.7, 95% CI [2.94, 3.66]) in the stressed mortise view group. Inter-rater reliability was excellent between all observers for medial clear space (ICC-0.88; CI [0.78, 0.94]).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results support the previous literature and allow us to advocate for ankle fractures with >5 mm medial clear space after external rotational stress to be considered unstable. Additionally, ankles with a medial clear space between 4 and 5 mm, instability should be considered only if lateral shift is > 2 mm on stress examination. Our data shows that no physiologically healthy ankles widened beyond these established cut-offs before or after the manual external rotation stress.

Biomechanical Analysis of Instability in Rotational Distal Fibula Fractures (OTA/AO 44-B1) With an Intact Deltoid Ligament

OBJECTIVES

To biomechanically analyze instability in supination external rotation (SER) II/III patterns.

METHODS

Nineteen cadaver legs were tested in a mechanical jig. One, 2, 3, and 4 Nm of external rotation were applied to intact ankles, SER II injuries, and SER III injuries. The talar position relative to the tibia was recorded using 3D motion tracking. Change from the unloaded state in each condition and the torque level was calculated. Results were analyzed using analysis of variance with post hoc paired t tests.

RESULTS

SER II showed statistically significant differences from the intact state with coronal translation (2, 3, and 4 Nm), sagittal translation (1 and 2 Nm), axial rotation (1, 2, 3, and 4 Nm), and coronal rotation (3 and 4 Nm). SER III showed statistically significant differences from the intact state with coronal translation (2, 3, and 4 Nm), sagittal translation (1, 2, and 3 Nm), axial rotation (1, 2, 3, and 4 Nm), and coronal rotation (3 and 4 Nm). SER II and SER III differed significantly from each other with coronal translation (1, 2, and 3 Nm), axial rotation (2, 3, and 4 Nm), and coronal rotation (1, 3, and 4 Nm).

CONCLUSION

Instability in SER injuries has only been described with coronal translation and suggests that deltoid rupture is necessary. Our data demonstrate instability in SER II/III in sagittal translation and axial rotation as well as subtle instability in coronal translation. The clinical impact is unclear, but better understanding of long-term sequelae of this instability is needed.

Selective fixation of the medial malleolus in unstable ankle fractures

BACKGROUND

Whilst the lateral malleolus appears to be crucial in controlling anatomical reduction of the talus, the role of the medial malleolus is less clear. Medial sided complications including infection, damage to local structures and symptomatic hardware are not without morbidity. This study compares the outcomes of patients with bimalleolar or trimalleolar ankle fractures who underwent fibular nail stabilisation with or without medial malleolar fixation.

METHODS

From a prospective single-centre trauma database, we identified 342 patients over a nine-year period who underwent fibular nail insertion to stabilise a bimalleolar or trimalleolar ankle fracture. Isolated lateral malleolar fractures were excluded. Demographic data, clinical outcomes, radiographic evaluation, return to work and sport, and patient reported outcomes, including Olerud-Molander Ankle Score (OMAS), EuroQol-5D (EQ-5D) and Manchester-Oxford Foot Questionnaire (MOXFQ) were collected.

RESULTS

This study included 247 patients with a mean age of 66.7 years (range, 25-96 years), of whom 200 were female (81%). Medial malleolar fixation was not performed in 54 cases (22%). There was no significant difference between groups with respect to failure of fixation (p = 0.634) or loss of talar reduction (p = 0.157). No patient required surgery for a symptomatic medial malleolar non-union. Medial sided complications occurred in 32 (16%) of the fixation group, of whom 20 (10%) required further surgery. At a mean mid-term follow-up of 4.8 years (range, 8 months - 9 years) there was no significant difference between the non-fixation and fixation groups with respect to the median OMAS (85 vs 80; p = 0.885) or median EQ-5D (0.80 vs 0.81; p = 0.846). Patient satisfaction was not significantly different between the two groups (85/100 vs 87/100; p = 0.410).

CONCLUSION

Non-operative management of the medial malleolar component of an unstable ankle fracture treated with a fibular nail may reduce the rate of post-operative complications without compromising the patient reported outcome.

Ankle gravity stress view in the seated position: A technical tip

The ankle gravity stress view (GSV) is often utilized to elucidate instability in patients with an apparent, isolated lateral malleolus fracture. While this has been demonstrated to have advantages over the manual external rotation stress test, positioning in the lateral decubitus position can be difficult, uncomfortable and time-intensive. We report a simple and safe technique that allows one to obtain a gravity stress view of the ankle with the patient seated.

Functional Outcome of Pronation-External Rotation-Weber C Ankle Fractures with Supracollicular Medial Malleolar Fracture Treated with or without Syndesmotic Screws: A Retrospective Comparative Cohort Study

Background:

In treatment of ankle fracture, intraoperative stress tests are used to assess the syndesmotic injury and instability. However, the optimized timing of the strees test should be applied whether in pre- or post-bony fixation during operation is seldom be reported in previous studies. The different strategies on stress test timing would exhibit opposite results within a type of pronation-external rotation (PER) fractures with supracollicular medial malleolar (SMM) fractures. This study was designed to assess the 3-year functional outcomes of the special PER fractures with or without a syndesmotic transfixation based on the results of two different intraoperative stress test strategies.

Methods:

This retrospective cohort study included 61 PER injury-Weber C ankle fractures combined with SMM fractures who were treated in Beijing Jishuitan Hospital between 2013 and 2014 and followed up for 3 years. Stress test was performed twice intraoperatively. A positive intraoperative stress test before bony fixation and a negative intraoperative stress test after bony fixation were found in these included patients. Twenty-nine patients (Group 1) were treated without a supplemental syndesmotic screw fixation, according to the negative intraoperative stress test after bony fixation, while 32 patients (Group 2) were treated with an additional syndesmotic screw fixation based on the positive intraoperative stress test before bony fixation. The American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) Ankle-Hindfoot Scale and Visual Analog Scale (VAS) for pain scores were the main measurements of outcome. The statistical index of demographic data, fracture morphologic data, time interval of follow-up, AOFAS and VAS were recorded and assessed by SPSS 21.0 software through Fisher exact tests and one-way analysis of variance. The associations between the main outcomes and influential factors were evaluated by linear regression models.

Results:

We observed no difference in the distribution of age, sex, presence of associated posterior malleolus (PM), fracture dislocation, and fixation of associated PM between two treatment groups. With the numbers available, no statistically significant association could be detected with regard to the AOFAS (Group 1 vs. Group 2, 96.72 ± 6.20 vs. 94.63 ± 8.26, F = 1.24, P = 0.27) and VAS (Group 1 vs. Group 2, 1.47 ± 2.14 vs. 0.72 ± 1.49, F = 2.44, P = 0.12) in association with two strategies.

Conclusions:

The present study indicates no difference to the use of the syndesmotic screw in terms of the functional outcome between syndesmosis transfixation and no-fixation patients among PER-Weber C ankle fracture patients with SMM fracture after 3-year follow-up. More attention should be paid to pre- and post-bony-fixation intraoperative stress tests and the morphology of medial malleoli fractures in ankle fractures.

Evaluation of Transsyndesmotic Fixation and Primary Deltoid Ligament Repair in Ankle Fractures With Suspected Combined Deltoid Ligament Injury

The present prospective study examined the utility of the intraoperative tap test/technique for distal tibiofibular syndesmosis in the diagnosis of deltoid ligament rupture and compared the outcomes of transsyndesmotic fixation to deltoid ligament repair with suture anchor. This diagnostic technique was performed in 59 ankle fractures with suspected deltoid ligament injury. The width of the medial clear space of 59 cases was evaluated to assess the sensitivity and specificity. Those with deltoid ligament rupture were randomly assigned to 2 groups and treated with deltoid ligament repair with a suture anchor or with syndesmosis screw fixation. All the patients were assessed with the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) ankle-hindfoot scale, short-form 36-item questionnaire (SF-36), and visual analog scale (VAS). The tap test was positive in 53 cases. However, surgical exploration demonstrated that 51 cases (86.4%) had a combined deltoid ligament injury and fracture. The sensitivity and specificity of the tap test was 100.0% and 75.0%, respectively. Finally, 26 cases (96.3%) in the syndesmosis screw group and 22 (91.7%) in the deltoid repair group were followed up. No statistically significant differences were found in the AOFAS ankle-hindfoot scale score, SF-36 score, or VAS score between the 2 groups. The malreduction rate in the syndesmosis screw group was 34.6% and that in the deltoid repair group was 9.09%. The tap test is an intraoperative diagnostic method to use to evaluate for deltoid ligament injury. Deltoid ligament repair with a suture anchor had good functional and radiologic outcomes comparable to those with syndesmotic screw fixation but has a lower malreduction rate. We did not encounter the issue of internal fixation failure or implant removal.

Medial Ankle Instability: The Deltoid Dilemma

Diagnosis and treatment of medial ankle instability (MAI) are still controversial and poorly discussed in literature. The purpose of this review is to highlight different clinical presentations of MAI and develop a guide for its management. The deltoid ligament complex is injured more commonly than expected, because deltoid ligament injuries may either be isolated or occur in combination with other lesions, such as lateral ankle ligament injury, posterior tibial tendon insufficiency, osteochondral lesion, and others. The presence of a pes planovalgus deformity in a patient without posterior tibial tendon insufficiency may indicate MAI.

Minimally Invasive Treatment of Ankle Fractures in Patients at High Risk of Soft Tissue Wound Healing Complications

The complex nature of ankle fractures is magnified when seen in patients at high risk of soft tissue wound healing complications. The major categories include associated soft tissue injury, diabetes, tobacco use, peripheral vascular disease, malnutrition, alcoholism, and corticosteroid use. Because of the potential for wound dehiscence and infection with open reduction and internal fixation of ankle fractures in these patients, minimally invasive procedures have been described. The aims of the present study were to assess the possibility for, and evaluate the results and complications of, minimally invasive techniques for different types of malleolar fractures in high-risk patients. We report the clinical results of 47 high-risk patients who presented with malleolar fractures from January 2007 to December 2012 and underwent minimally invasive reduction and fixation. One patient (0.5%) developed a superficial infection; however, none of the patients displayed wound dehiscence or deep infection. Five patients (10.6%) required open reduction because of intraoperative failure to achieve anatomic reduction. Using the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society ankle-hindfoot scale, 15 of the patients (36%) treated with minimally invasive techniques experienced an excellent outcome. In contrast, 23 patients (55%) had a good, 3 (7%) a fair, and 1 (2.5%) a poor outcome. The results of our study have shown that minimally invasive fixation appears to be a satisfactory method for the management of malleolar fractures in high-risk patients and could be helpful in the avoidance of the complications associated with conventional open reduction and internal fixation.

Intraoperative tap test for coronal syndesmotic instability: A cadaveric study

INTRODUCTION

Precise diagnosis of distal tibiofibular syndesmotic injury is challenging, and a gold standard diagnostic test has still not been established. Tibiofibular clear space identified on radiographic imaging is considered the most reliable indicator of the injury. The Cotton test is the most widely used intraoperative technique to evaluate the syndesmotic integrity although it has its limitations. We advocate for a novel intra operative test using a 3.5 mm blunt cortical tap.

METHODS

Tibiofibular clear space was assessed in nine cadaveric specimens using three sequential fluoroscopic images. The first image was taken prior to the application of the tap test (intact, non-stressed). Then, a 2.5 mm hole was drilled distally on the lateral fibula, and a 3.5 mm cortical tap was then threaded in the hole. The tap test involved gradually advancing the blunt tip against the lateral tibia, providing a tibiofibular separation force (intact, stressed). This same stress was then applied after all syndesmotic ligaments were released (injured, stressed). Measurements were compared by one-way ANOVA and paired Student's t-test. Intra and inter-observer agreements were evaluated by intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). P-values <.05 were considered significant.

RESULTS

We found excellent intra-observer (0.97) and inter-observer (0.98) agreement following the imaging assessment. Significant differences were found in the paired comparison between the groups (p < .05). When using an absolute value for TFCS >6 mm as diagnostic for coronal syndesmotic instability, the tap test demonstrated a 96.3% sensitivity and specificity, a 96.3% PPV and NPV and a 96.3% accuracy in diagnosing coronal syndesmotic instability.

CONCLUSIONS

Our cadaveric study demonstrated that this novel coronal syndesmotic instability test using a 3.5 mm blunt cortical tap is a simple, accurate and reliable technique able to demonstrate significant differences in the tibiofibular clear space when injury was present. It could represent a more controlled and stable alternative to the most used Cotton test.

Immediate Weight-Bearing Protocol for the Determination of Ankle Stability in Patients With Isolated Distal Fibular Fractures

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate an alternative protocol for allowing immediate weight-bearing (WB) as tolerated in a functional walking boot in patients with a medial clear space (MCS) of less than 4 mm on nonstressed initial radiographs with subsequent WB radiographs at 1-week follow-up to determine if this can differentiate stable from unstable distal fibular fractures.

DESIGN

Retrospective case series.

SETTING

Level 1 trauma center.

PATIENTS

Seventy-nine patients who sustained an isolated distal fibular fracture with an MCS less than 4 mm on initial non-weight-bearing radiographs during a 6-year period.

INTERVENTION

Patients with MCS less than 4 mm on 1-week radiographs were treated nonoperatively. Patients with MCS greater than or equal to 4 mm were treated operatively.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS

Medial clear space measurements on WB ankle radiographs at the time of radiographic bony union.

RESULTS

Two of the 79 (2.5%) patients had an MCS greater than 4 mm at 1-week follow-up with WB radiographs and underwent operative fixation. The remaining 77 patients were treated nonoperatively. All 77 patients had an MCS less than 4 mm on WB radiographs at the time of radiographic healing.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that our immediate weight-bearing protocol may be an effective method for determination of functional ankle stability only in the setting of an isolated distal fibula fracture with MCS less than 4 mm. However, it should be cautioned that careful evaluation of WB radiographs for joint asymmetry and/or MCS widening is mandatory to avoid poor outcomes.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic Level IV. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Evaluation and Significance of Mortise Instability in Supination External Rotation Fibula Fractures: A Review Article

Evaluation and management of ankle fractures has progressed in parallel to an evolving understanding of ankle stability. While stability of the mortise had historically been attributed to the lateral malleolus, Lauge-Hansen's contributions followed by multiple other investigations increased the emphasis on the significance of medial-sided injury in destabilizing the mortise. As the importance of the deltoid ligament has been elucidated, the means of assessing ligamentous incompetence and the prognostic significance of an unstable mortise continue to be defined.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level V, expert opinion.

A Medial Malleolar "Fleck Sign" May Predict Ankle Instability in Ligamentous Supination External Rotation Ankle Fractures

BACKGROUND

Ankle joint stability dictates treatment in ligamentous supination external rotation ankle injuries (LSERAI). Investigation of the medial structures that support the ankle mortise is critical, and a small avulsion fracture, or "fleck", of the medial malleolus is occasionally encountered. This study aimed to assess the utility of this medial malleolus fleck sign (MMFS) in diagnosing instability requiring surgery in LSERAI.

METHODS

This retrospective observational study examined 166 LSERAI at a single level I trauma center. A standardized diagnostic and treatment protocol for ankle fractures was followed. LSERAI at presentation were reported as having a normal, dynamically wide, or statically wide medial clear space. Patient demographics, MMFS characteristics, and the use of operative management were recorded.

RESULTS

MMFS incidence in the cohort was 16 (10%) of 166 and was present in 25% of patients with unstable LSERAI. Fifteen (94%) of 16 patients with a MMFS were deemed to have an unstable LSERAI (P < .005). MMFS had a 25% sensitivity and 99% specificity in diagnosing an unstable LSERAI. For the subgroup of patients without a statically wide medial clear space, MMFS had a 50% sensitivity and 99% specificity in determining instability.

CONCLUSION

A MMFS may be indicative of an unstable LSERAI. With previous MRI studies demonstrating complete deltoid disruption in unstable LSERAI, we deduce the MMFS may be associated with extensive deltoid incompetence. The MMFS may help to diagnose a complete deltoid injury in LSERAI with a normal medial clear space, which could influence treatment and reduce patient morbidity, radiation exposure, and healthcare costs.

LEVELS OF EVIDENCE

Level III: Retrospective Cohort Study.

[Injuries of the medial collateral ligament and spring ligament complexes]

The medial collateral ligament (MCL) complex is characterized by a complex anatomical arrangement of the individual ligamentous structures including three joints and the spring ligament complex. Biomechanically it serves as the main stabilizing structure in the ankle region against rotational and pronating forces. Lesions in the region of the MCL complex are more frequent than previously thought and like lesions of the spring ligament complex can lead to pain and instability. A thorough examination including the patient history with possible injury mechanisms often yields valuable information on the diagnosis of injuries to the MCL or spring ligament complex. In many cases these are primarily overlooked and concomitant lesions, such as fractures, syndesmotic and lateral ligament lesions frequently occur; however, the clinical assessment of stability is often primarily impossible in an acute setting. High-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) plays a key role in identifying the ligamentous components. In addition, MRI plays a supportive role in the preoperative planning before reconstruction of acute and especially chronic lesions. In most cases the surgical treatment of acute ruptures of the MCL is not indicated. Various options for treatment of acute and chronic lesions of the MCL and spring ligament complex are available including the use of free tendon grafts. Controversy exists regarding the operative treatment of MCL lesions in the case of ankle fractures. It is recommended for cases with impinging tissue in the medial gutter serving as a barrier to adequate reduction of the joint and in cases of unstable fractures after reduction.

Role for Primary Repair of Deltoid Ligament Complex in Ankle Fractures

Acute deltoid injuries may occur with ankle fractures. They are often left to heal without repair, possibly leading to chronic medial ankle instability. Stress radiographs identify the need for surgical repair of fractures or soft tissue damage. Gravity stress views have benefits over manually stressing the ankle. MRI can explore the extent of medial soft tissue injuries. Arthroscopy can evaluate and potentially treat deltoid injuries. Interposition of the deltoid may preclude adequate fracture reduction. Except with deltoid tear, fractures should be reduced and fixated, then the deltoid assessed. With persistent instability, primary repair may prevent long-term sequelae.

Initial Fibular Displacement as a Predictor of Medial Clear Space Widening in Weber B Ankle Fractures

BACKGROUND

The diagnosis of medial ankle instability in Weber B ankle fractures remains controversial. Manual stress and gravity stress radiographs as well as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are used, but there is no consensus gold standard. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between initial fibular displacement and medial clear space widening on a gravity stress radiograph as a predictor of instability.

METHODS

A retrospective review was conducted of all patients with isolated Weber B ankle fractures with both initial injury radiographs and gravity stress view from August 1, 2014, through April 1, 2016. A total of 17 patients were identified. On the mortise view of initial injury radiographs, medial clear space (MCS), superior clear space, lateral fibular displacement (LFDP), and fibular shortening (FS) were measured, and on the lateral view, anterior to posterior fibular gap (A to P FG) was measured. MCS was again measured on the gravity stress view (MCS-W). Statistical analyses identified the correlations of each displacement variable relative to MCS-W as well as the sensitivity and specificity of each parameter.

RESULTS

A cutoff point for MCS-W was set as less than 5.0 mm (n = 8) and 5.0 mm or more (n = 9). Strong significant correlations with MCS-W were found for A to P FG (0.84, P < .001), with a trend for LFDP (0.62, P = .008), but no significance with FS (0.38, P = .84). Linear regression analysis revealed significant ability to predict MCS-W for both LFDP ( P = .002) and A to P FG ( P = .001) but not FS. Receiver operating characteristic analysis for A to P FG using a threshold value of 1.0 mm yielded sensitivity and specificity of 100% in predicting an MCS-W of 5.0 mm or more.

CONCLUSION

The initial fibular displacement was a strong predictor of MCS-W in Weber B ankle fractures. On lateral radiographs, an A to P FG greater than 1.0 mm showed a sensitivity and specificity of 100% in predicting an MCS-W of 5.0 mm or more on gravity stress view.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III case series, prognostic.

Short-Term Results of a Ruptured Deltoid Ligament Repair During an Acute Ankle Fracture Fixation

BACKGROUND

There is no consensus on the optimal treatment or preferred method of operation for the management of acute deltoid ligament injuries during an ankle fracture fixation. This study aimed to analyze the outcomes of repairing the deltoid ligament during the fixation of an ankle fracture compared to conservative management.

METHODS

We retrospectively evaluated 78 consecutive cases of a ruptured deltoid ligament with an associated ankle fracture between 2001 and 2016. All of the ankle fractures were treated with a plate and screw fixation. Patients in the conservative treatment for ruptured deltoid ligament underwent management from 2001 to 2008 (37 fractures, group 1), while the operative treatment for ruptured deltoid ligament was included from 2009 to 2016 (41 fractures, group 2). The outcome measures included radiographic findings, the American Orthopaedic Foot & Ankle Society ankle-hindfoot scores, visual analog scale scores, and the Foot Function Index. All patients were followed for an average of 17 months.

RESULTS

Radiologic findings in both groups were comparable, but the final follow-up of the medial clear space (MCS) was significantly smaller in the group 2 ( P < .01). Clinical outcomes were similar between the two groups ( P > .05). Comparing those who underwent syndesmotic fixation between both groups, group 2 showed a significantly smaller final follow-up MCS, and all clinical outcomes were better in group 2 ( P < .05). Linear regression analysis showed that the final follow-up MCS had a significant influence on clinical outcomes ( P < .05).

CONCLUSION

Although the clinical outcomes were not significantly different between the 2 groups, we obtained a more favorable final follow-up MCS in the deltoid repair group. Particularly when accompanied by a syndesmotic injury, the final follow-up MCS and the clinical outcomes were better in the deltoid repair group. In the case of high-grade unstable fractures of the ankle with syndesmotic instability, a direct repair of the deltoid ligament was adequate for restoring medial stability.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III, retrospective comparative case series.

Surgical treatment of ankle fracture with or without deltoid ligament repair: a comparative study

Background

Deltoid ligament (DL) rupture is commonly seen in clinical practice; however the need to explore and surgically repair it is still in debate. The objective of the current study is to compare the outcomes of surgical treatment of ankle fracture with or without DL repair.

Methods

Between 2009 and 2015, Seventy-four ankle fractures with DL rupture were identified and followed. Twenty patients were treated with surgical repair of the DL, while 54 were not. The pre- and post-operative medial clear space (MCS) were measured and the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) ankle-hindfoot score and visual analogue scale (VAS) were used for functional evaluation. According to the radiological malreduction of MCS, the odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) for each potential relative factor were calculated.

Results

The mean followup time was 53.7 months. The mean MCS preoperatively, postoperatively, and at last followup time were 8.7 ± 2.4 (range, 6.2–14.8) mm, 3.7 ± 0.9 (range, 2.6–6.4) mm, 3.6 ± 1.0 (range, 2.6–6.8) mm, respectively. The mean AOFAS score was 86.4 ± 8.1 (range, 52–100) points, and the mean VAS was 1.4 ± 1.4 (range, 0–7) points. During followup, 14.9% (11/74) cases were found to be malreduced (MCS>5 mm), and 5.4% (4/74) went on to failure. Surgical repair of DL can significantly decrease the postoperative MCS (P<0.05), and can also decrease the malreduction rate (P<0.05). AO/OTA type-C ankle fractures showed a positive correlation with malreduction (OR = 4.38, P = 0.03). In this type of injury, surgical repair of the DL can significantly decrease the malreduction rate (P<0.05). No significant difference was found between the AO/OTA type-B fracture with or without DL repair.

Conclusions

Surgical repair of the DL is helpful in decreasing the postoperative MCS and malreduction rate, especially for the AO/OTA type-C ankle fractures.

An evaluation of the Herscovici classification for fractures of the medial malleolus

BACKGROUND

Despite its use in the literature, the application of the Herscovici classification system for medial malleolus fractures has not been evaluated.

METHODS

We aimed to determine the reliability and accuracy of the Herscovici classification. The blinded radiographs of 130 patients were independently classified by four orthopaedic trauma surgeons. We held a consensus meeting where observers agreed on a final classification and this served as our reference standard. We used weighted kappa (κ) coefficients of agreement.

RESULTS

Twenty-four fractures (18%) were deemed unclassifiable. The classification system demonstrated moderate inter-observer reliability (κ=0.54, 95% CI 0.40-0.68) but substantial reproducibility (κ=0.64, 95% CI 0.51-0.79). Accuracy, when compared with the reference standard, was κ=0.54 (95% CI 0.40-0.66).

CONCLUSIONS

The obliquity of the fracture line, and fracture extension, created difficulty in classification in 26% of cases. 18% of our cases could not be classified by majority decision. Our results emphasise the challenges faced in classifying these fractures. Future work should focus on refining the Herscovici classification.

Deltoid Ligament Repair in Flatfoot Deformity

Deltoid ligament reconstruction allows for joint preservation of the ankle in the setting of patients a triple arthrodesis due to a flat foot deformity. Although the increased forces that may occur in the ankle joint after a triple arthrodesis cannot be eliminated, reconstruction of the ligament will delay and may prevent the onset arthritis, allowing the patient to maintain mobility of the ankle joint. The anatomy, surgery, and risks and benefits are discussed.

Differences in Classification Between Mono- and Polytrauma and Low- and High-Energy Trauma Patients With an Ankle Fracture: A Retrospective Cohort Study

Although fracture type and treatment options for ankle fractures are well defined, the differences between mono- and polytrauma patients and low- and high-energy trauma have not been addressed. The aim of the present study was to compare the fracture type and trauma mechanism between mono- and polytrauma and low- and high-energy trauma patients with an ankle fracture. We performed a single-center retrospective cohort study. Fractures were classified according to the Lauge-Hansen classification and a descriptive classification. High-energy trauma (HET) was defined using triage criteria. All other patients were classified as having experienced low-energy trauma (LET). The patients were divided into 2 groups according to the injury severity score (ISS). Monotrauma patients were defined as patients with an ISS of 4 to 11 with an isolated ankle fracture or an ankle fracture with a minor contusion or laceration. Polytrauma patients were defined as patients with an ISS of ≥16 with ≥2 body regions involved. Patients with an ISS from 12 to 15 were excluded. A total of 96 patients were eligible for analysis. Of the 96 patients, 62 had experienced monotrauma and 34 had experienced polytrauma. A significant difference was found between the mono- and polytrauma patients in the Lauge-Hansen classification (p < .001). Monotrauma patients had a high incidence of an isolated supination external rotation injury. Supination adduction and pronation abduction injuries were more often observed in polytrauma patients. The same pattern was observed for ankle fractures after HET compared with LET (p < .001), because all pronation abduction and supination adduction injuries were observed after a HET mechanism. The results of the present study indicate that polytrauma patients sustain different types of ankle fractures than patients with an isolated ankle fracture. This difference likely results from the high-energy transfer associated with polytrauma, because pronation abduction and supination adduction injuries were only observed after HET.

Gravity Stress Radiographs and the Effect of Ankle Position on Deltoid Ligament Integrity and Medial Clear Space Measurements

INTRODUCTION

External rotation and gravity stress radiographs have been described to distinguish stable supination-external rotation-II (SER-II) ankle fractures from unstable SER-IV fractures. It has been previously shown that both external rotation and gravity stress views are equivalent in their ability to diagnose deltoid ligament injury. It has also been shown that the position of the ankle influences the external rotation stress radiograph. However, no data of ankle position exist for gravity stress radiographs.

METHODS

Eight fresh-frozen cadaveric ankles were dissected and destabilized sequentially according to the SER mechanism of ankle fractures, starting with the anterior inferior tibiofibular ligament, distal fibula osteotomy at the level of the syndesmosis, posterior inferior tibiofibular ligament, superficial deltoid ligament, and finally the deep deltoid ligament. Fluoroscopic radiographs were taken with gravity stress views in both neutral and plantarflexion. Measurements of both dorsal and the medial clear space were taken for each stage. The difference between the dorsal and medial clear space was measured.

RESULTS

Positive predictive value (PPV) with a medial clear space cutoff of 5 mm was 80% in plantarflexion and 72.72% in neutral with a negative predictive value (NPV) of 100% in both positions. Using a 6-mm cutoff, the PPV improved to 100% and NPV remained 100% for both neutral and plantarflexion. When the difference measurement is used, a 1.0-mm difference yielded a PPV of 72% and an NPV of 100% in both neutral and plantarflexion. With a 1.5-mm cutoff, the PPV and NPV were 100% for both positions.

CONCLUSIONS

The position of the ankle during gravity stress radiographs does not influence the clinical effectiveness of the images. Using larger references for stability, the PPV can be improved.