Risk Factors for Recurrent Anterior Glenohumeral Instability and Clinical Failure Following Primary Latarjet Procedures: An Analysis of 344 Patients

Mechanistic study of the effect of flexible fixation and load-bearing stress environment on fracture healing and shaping

BACKGROUND

The biomechanical environment created by suture-button fixation Latarjet is conducive to the healing and shaping of the transplanted coracoid, but its mechanism remains unclear. The latest research has found that the absence of stem cell chemokine (CXCL12) impeded bone regeneration in Sonic Hedgehog (SHH)-deficient animals. However, whether the biomechanical environment affects SHH and CXCL12 function has not been studied.

METHODS

Rat fracture models were constructed to simulate stress environments under non-load-bearing and load-bearing conditions. The fracture healing and shaping, as well as the expression levels of SHH and CXCL12, were assessed through gross viewing, micro-computed tomography (micro-CT), and histochemical staining.

RESULTS

Under flexible fixation, the relative bone volume (BV/TV) of rats exposed to the load-bearing stress environment was significantly higher than that of rats under a non-load-bearing stress environment (p ≤ 0.05). Adverse bone shaping was not observed in rats subjected to flexible fixation. The levels of SHH and CXCL12 in load-bearing rats exhibited significant elevation (p ≤ 0.05). Under a load-bearing stress environment, no significant difference was observed in the BV/TV between the flexible fixation group and the rigid fixation group (p ≥ 0.05), but there was excessive hyperplasia of the fracture callus in the rigid fixation group. The levels of SHH and CXCL12 in rats subjected to rigid fixation were significantly elevated (p ≤ 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Flexible fixation and load-bearing stress environment may contribute to bone healing and shaping by influencing the levels of SHH and CXCL12, suggested that this mechanism may be relevant to the healing and shaping of the transplanted coracoid after suture-button fixation Latarjet.

Shoulder Instability-Return to Sports After Injury (SIRSI) Scale Shows That Lack of Psychological Readiness Predicts Outcomes and Recurrence Following Surgical Stabilization

PURPOSE

This study aimed to evaluate the predictive ability of psychological readiness to return to sports on clinical outcomes and recurrences in athletes who return to sports following shoulder instability surgery.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis was performed of patients who underwent shoulder instability surgery between September 2020 and October 2021 (arthroscopic Bankart repair or Latarjet procedure) with a minimum follow-up of 2 years. Patients were grouped according to the achievement of psychological readiness to return to play using the SIRSI scale (≥ 55 points) measured at 6 months following surgery. Recurrences were measured and functional outcomes were evaluated by the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS), Rowe, and Athletic Shoulder Outcome Scoring System (ASOSS). The minimal clinically important difference (MCID) for the VAS and Rowe scores was calculated using the distribution-based method of ½ standard deviation of the delta (difference between postoperative and preoperative scores). The patient acceptable symptomatic state (PASS) for the VAS scale was set at 2.5 based on previous literature. To evaluate the predictive ability of SIRSI a regression model analysis and a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve were used.

RESULTS

A total of 108 who achieved psychological readiness (PSR) and 41 who did not (NPSR) met the study criteria. PSR achieved significantly higher percentages of MCID and PASS thresholds for VAS than NPSR (MCID: 68.5% vs 48.7%, p=0.026; PASS: 92.5% vs 58.5%, p<0.001). However, there were no differences in the percentage of patients achieving MCID for the Rowe score between groups (98.1% vs 100%, p=0.999). The only strongest independent predictor of postoperative outcomes was being psychologically ready to return to sports. The SIRSI scale had an excellent predictive ability for recurrences (area under curve 0.745, 95% CI 0.5-0.8). Of those who sustained a recurrence, 20% were not psychologically ready compared to 4.3% who were (p= 0.002). A power analysis was not conducted for this study.

CONCLUSION

The SIRSI scale is associated with postoperative clinical outcomes and recurrences in patients who returned to sports following shoulder instability surgery. Patients who were not psychologically ready following shoulder instability surgery had worse clinical outcomes with fewer patients achieving clinically significant outcomes (PASS and MCID) for pain, and a higher risk of recurrence.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV, Retrospective cohort study.

Outcomes of the Latarjet procedure in female patients: A case series and matched-pair analysis

Background

The objective of this study was to retrospectively report on the outcomes of female patients undergoing the Latarjet procedure.

Methods

Female patients undergoing the Latarjet procedure with minimum 1 year follow-up were identified and contacted to obtain Numeric Pain Rating Scale (NPRS), Subjective Shoulder Value (SSV), and return to sport (RTS) data. Eligible females were then matched 1:1 with a male counterpart based on laterality and age (± 3 years), and outcomes compared.

Results

A total of 20 female patients with a mean follow-up of 73.8 months reported postoperative NPRS and SSV scores of 2.2  ±  2.3 and 69.3  ±  22.0, respectively. Of the nine athletes, 3 (33%) reported a successful RTS at a mean of 9 months. Four patients (20.0%) required reoperation at a mean of 27.1 months. The matched analysis demonstrated similar NPRS scores between male and female patients and a trend towards lower SSV scores and rates of RTS.

Conclusion

At mid-term follow-up female patients reported pain levels similar to female-specific literature reports, but overall low subjective shoulder function and RTS. Compared to propensity-matched males, females reported similar levels of pain, lower shoulder function, and lower rates of RTS, however, differences did not reach statistical significance.

Level of Evidence

IV, retrospective case series.

Isolated Primary Latarjet Procedures for Anterior Shoulder Instability Results in High Rates of Graft Resorption and Glenohumeral Degenerative Changes With Low Rates of Failure at a Minimum 2-Year Follow-Up: A Systematic Review

PURPOSE

To evaluate the incidence of postoperative complications after an isolated primary Latarjet procedure for anterior shoulder instability at a minimum 2-year follow-up.

METHODS

A systematic review was performed in accordance with 2020 PRISMA guidelines. EMBASE, Scopus, and PubMed databases were queried from database inception through September 2022. The literature search was limited to human clinical studies reporting on postoperative complications and adverse events after a primary Latarjet procedure with a minimum 2-year follow-up. Risk of bias was measured using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale.

RESULTS

Twenty-two studies, consisting of 1,797 patients (n = 1,816 shoulders), with a mean age of 24 years were identified. The overall postoperative complication rate ranged from 0% to 25.7%, with the most common complication being persistent shoulder pain (range: 0%-25.7%). Radiological changes included graft resorption (range: 7.5%-100%) and glenohumeral degenerative changes (range: 0%-52.5%). Recurrent instability following surgery was documented in 0% to 35% of shoulders, while the incidence of bone block fractures ranged from 0% to 6% of cases. Postoperative nonunion, infection, and hematomas had a reported incidence rate ranging from 0% to 16.7%, 0% to 2.6%, and 0% to 4.4%, respectively. Overall, 0% to 7.5% of surgeries were reported failures, and 0% to 11.1% of shoulders required reoperation, with a revision rate ranging from 0% to 7.7%.

CONCLUSIONS

The incidence of complications following the primary Latarjet procedure for shoulder instability was variable, ranging from 0% to 25.7%. High rates of graft resorption, degenerative changes, and nonunion were present while failure and revision rates remained low at a minimum 2-year follow-up.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III, systematic review of Level I-III studies.

Outcomes of Arthroscopic Latarjet as a Revision Surgery After Failed Arthroscopic Bankart Repair

BACKGROUND

The role of arthroscopic Latarjet as a revision surgery after failed arthroscopic Bankart repair has yet to be established.

PURPOSE

To compare clinical outcomes, recurrences, and complication rates of arthroscopic Latarjet as a revision procedure after failed arthroscopic Bankart repair versus arthroscopic Latarjet as a primary procedure.

DESIGN

Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3.

METHODS

This is a retrospective study of prospectively collected data of patients who were diagnosed with anterior shoulder instability and underwent arthroscopic Latarjet stabilization between 2009 and 2018. Patients were separated into 2 groups depending on whether Latarjet was performed after a previous instability surgery (revision) or as a primary surgery (primary). Rowe score, Western Ontario Shoulder Instability Index (WOSI), Constant-Murley Shoulder Outcome (CMSO) score, and Single Assessment Numeric Evaluation (SANE) were assessed pre- and postoperatively with a minimum 24 months of follow-up. In addition, pre- and postoperative levels of sports activity, dislocations, subluxations, and complications were assessed.

RESULTS

A total of 97 patients (n = 62 revision; n = 35 primary), with a mean age of 31.0 ± 8.8 and 29.4 ± 7.6 years old in the revision and primary Latajet group, respectively, met the inclusion criteria. The mean follow-up in the revision group was 32 months (24-53) and 35.5 months (27.7-42.2) in the primary Latarjet group. No significant differences between groups were observed in Rowe score (revision = 91.4, primary = 94.1; P = .223), CMSO score (revision = 90.7, primary = 94; P = .105), and SANE (revision = 85.8, primary = 87.3; P = .683) postoperatively. However, the postoperative difference in the WOSI score between the revision and primary Latarjet groups was nearly significant (510 ± 334 vs 403 ± 343, respectively; P = .05). Four (6.4%) postoperative dislocations were reported in the revision and 1 (2.8%) in the primary Latarjet group (P = .14). Patients in the revision group had a lower return to the previous level of sports participation (P = .008) and decreased external rotation with the arm by the side compared with the primary Latarjet group (P = .000).

CONCLUSION

Arthroscopic Latarjet as a revision surgery is a reasonable surgical option in failed Bankart repair cases. The decision to perform arthroscopic Latarjet stabilization as a revision surgery should not be influenced by the potential risk of future complications as it provides comparable clinical outcomes to the primary Latarjet procedure with a low postoperative recurrence rate. However, a decreased level of postoperative sports participation and external rotation with the arm by the side can be expected.

Recurrent Instability after the Latarjet Procedure

The Latarjet procedure is a favored approach for managing chronic and recurrent dislocation, especially in the presence of bone loss. Although generally yielding excellent results, the procedure carries a 15 to 30% complication rate. Although recurrent instability is a major concern, various complications such as infection, nerve injuries, and hardware impingement can also necessitate revision after a Latarjet procedure. Strategies for addressing this issue include glenoid bone grafting, using autogenous bone grafts from the iliac crest or distal clavicle, and allografts, with fresh lateral distal tibial allografts offering advantages because of their osteochondral nature. In addition, soft-tissue procedures offer another solution for recurrent instability, suitable for patients lacking substantial bone loss or those experiencing multidirectional instability. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the causes and management strategies for recurrent instability following a failed Latarjet procedure.

A Systematic Review of Screw and Suture Button Glenoid Augmentation Constructs

Background

Glenohumeral dislocations often lead to glenoid bone loss and recurrent instability, warranting bony augmentation. While numerous biomechanical studies have investigated fixation methods to secure a graft to the glenoid, a review of available constructs has yet to be performed.

Purpose

To synthesize the literature and compare the biomechanics of screw and suture button constructs for anterior glenoid bony augmentation.

Study Design

Systematic review.

Methods

A systematic review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines. There were 2 independent reviewers who performed a literature search using the PubMed, Embase, and Google Scholar databases of studies published between 1950 and 2020. Studies were included that compared the biomechanical outcomes of fixation for the treatment of anterior shoulder instability with glenoid bone loss.

Results

Overall, 13 of the 363 studies screened met the inclusion criteria. The included studies measured the biomechanical strength of screws or suture buttons on a cadaveric or synthetic Latarjet construct. Screws and suture buttons were biomechanically similar, as both constructs exhibited comparable loads at failure and final displacement. Screw type (diameter, threading, or composition) did not significantly affect construct strength, and double-screw fixation was superior to single-screw fixation. Additionally, 2 screws augmented with a small plate had a higher load at failure than screws that were not augmented. Unicortical double-screw fixation was inferior to bicortical double-screw fixation, although construct strength did not significantly decrease if 1 of these screws was unicortical. Further, 2 screws inserted at 15° off axis experienced significantly higher graft displacement and lower ultimate failure loads than those inserted at 0° parallel to the glenoid.

Conclusion

Suture buttons provided comparable strength to screws and offer an effective alternative to reduce screw-related complications. Augmentation with a small plate may clinically enhance construct strength and decrease complications through the dispersion of force loads over a greater surface area. Differences in screw type did not appear to alter construct strength, provided that screws were placed parallel to the articular surface and were bicortical.

Factors affecting a patient's experience following the open Latarjet procedure to treat recurrent anterior shoulder instability

The open Latarjet procedure is a widely used treatment for recurrent anterior instability of the shoulder. Although satisfactory outcomes are reported, factors which influence a patient's experience are poorly quantified. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of a range of demographic factors and measures of the severity of instability on patient-reported outcome measures in patients who underwent an open Latarjet procedure at a minimum follow-up of two years. A total of 350 patients with anterior instability of the shoulder who underwent an open Latarjet procedure between 2005 and 2018 were reviewed prospectively, with the collection of demographic and psychosocial data, preoperative CT, and complications during follow-up of two years. The primary outcome measure was the Western Ontario Shoulder Instability Index (WOSI), assessed preoperatively, at two years postoperatively, and at mid-term follow-up at a mean of 50.6 months (SD 24.8) postoperatively. The secondary outcome measure was the abbreviated version of the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (QuickDASH) score. The influence of the demographic details of the patients, measurements of the severity of instability, and the complications of surgery were assessed in a multivariate analysis. The mean age of the patients was 25.5 years (22 to 32) and 27 (7.7%) were female. The median time to surgery after injury was 19 months (interquartile range (IQR) 13 to 39). Seven patients developed clinically significant complications requiring further intervention within two years of surgery. The median percentage WOSI deficiency was 8.0% (IQR 4 to 20) and median QuickDASH was 3.0 (IQR 0 to 9) at mid-term assessment. A minority of patients reported a poorer experience, and 22 (6.3%) had a > 50% deficiency in WOSI score. Multivariate analysis revealed that consumption of ≥ 20 units of alcohol/week, a pre-existing affective disorder or epilepsy, medicolegal litigation, increasing time to surgery, and residing in a more socioeconomically deprived area were independently predictive of a poorer WOSI score. Although most patients treated by an open Latarjet procedure have excellent outcomes at mid-term follow-up, a minority have poorer outcomes, which are mainly predictable from pre-existing demographic factors, rather than measures of the severity of instability.

Clinical and Radiological Outcomes in Patients With Anterior Shoulder Instability and Glenoid Bone Loss after Arthroscopic Free Bone Block Combined With Dynamic Anterior Stabilization

BACKGROUND

As an alternative to the Latarjet procedure, the arthroscopic free bone block (FBB) procedure combined with dynamic anterior stabilization (DAS) has been recently proposed to provide both glenoid augmentation and a tendon sling effect for treating anterior shoulder instability (ASI) with glenoid bone loss.

PURPOSE

To evaluate the clinical and radiological outcomes of FBB-DAS for ASI with glenoid bone loss.

STUDY DESIGN

Case series; Level of evidence, 4.

METHODS

Patients who underwent arthroscopic FBB-DAS for ASI with >15% glenoid bone loss between February 2017 and March 2020 were screened and enrolled in this study. Clinical outcome measures were assessed preoperatively and at a minimum 2-year follow-up, including recurrence, complications, shoulder functional scores, range of motion, and return to sports. Postoperative computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging were also performed.

RESULTS

Of a total of 65 patients with a mean follow-up of 46.1 ± 13.1 months, no patients experienced a recurrent dislocation or subluxation postoperatively, while 2 had a positive anterior apprehension test (3.1%). Additionally, 2 patients (3.1%) experienced complications of hematoma and shoulder stiffness, respectively. The mean visual analog scale score, American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons score, Rowe score, and Oxford Shoulder Instability Score all improved significantly from 3.2 ± 2.4, 75.0 ± 18.9, 43.6 ± 27.3, and 33.8 ± 9.0 preoperatively to 1.3 ± 0.8, 95.1 ± 8.0, 95.5 ± 7.8, and 14.8 ± 3.5 at final follow-up, respectively (all P < .001). No difference was detected in range of motion except for 8.1° and 7.5° external rotation limitations in adduction and abduction, respectively. There were 62 patients (95.4%) who returned to sports, and 54 patients (83.1%) returned to the preinjury level. The transferred biceps tendon was intact in all 59 patients who completed radiological examination at the latest follow-up. Good bone healing was achieved in 98.3% of patients, and the glenoid bone defect decreased from 18.1% to 4.9%. Osseous and labral glenoids were significantly enlarged in width and depth on the latest magnetic resonance imaging (all P < .001).

CONCLUSION

Arthroscopic FBB-DAS provided satisfactory clinical and radiological outcomes for ASI with glenoid bone loss. Despite slight external rotation restrictions, it achieved low recurrence and complication rates, excellent shoulder functional scores, a high return-to-sports rate, and favorable graft healing and remodeling.

Recurrence of instability after Latarjet procedure: causes, results and treatment algorithm

Latarjet modifies the anatomy of the shoulder, and subsequent revision surgery is challenging. It is mandatory to determine the cause of recurrence in order to select the best treatment option. A CT scan is needed to measure glenoid track and evaluate coracoid graft status: position, degree of consolidation, and osteolysis. Conservative management can be advocated in selected patients in whom the instability level does not interfere with the activities they wish to perform. Surgical treatment is based on the glenoid track measurement and coracoid graft suitability. The coracoid graft is considered suitable if it preserves the conjoint tendon insertion, does not show osteolysis, and is large enough to reconstruct the glenoid surface. Adding a remplissage is recommended for those cases with a coracoid graft insufficient to convert large off-track Hill-Sachs lesions into on-track. If the coracoid graft is suitable to reconstruct bone defects in terms of size and viability but is poorly positioned or avulsed, graft repositioning can be a valid option. In patients with unsuitable coracoid bone graft, free bone graft is the revision technique of choice. The size of the graft should be large enough to restore the glenoid surface and to convert any off-track Hill-Sachs lesion into on-track. There is a small group of patients in whom bone defects were properly addressed but Latarjet failed due to hyperlaxity or poor soft tissue quality. Extraarticular capsular reinforcement is suggested in this population.

Glenoid bone augmentation: a contemporary and comprehensive systematic review of open procedures

Introduction

There is a trend towards arthroscopically treating shoulder instability with glenoid deficiency. Despite this, there remains the option for treatment through an open technique. Multiple bone augmentation options are available for recurrent anterior shoulder instability.

Objective

To provide a systematic review of recent studies for recurrent anterior shoulder instability necessitating glenoid bone augmentation specifically through open procedures using coracoid bone or free bone blocks [iliac crest bone autograft/allograft or distal tibia allograft (DTA)].

Methods

PubMed, Cochrane, EMBASE, and Google Scholar were searched for studies reporting open glenoid bone augmentation procedures with iliac crest, tibia, or coracoid bones within 10 years. Extracted data included study/patient characteristics, techniques, prior surgeries, prior dislocations, radiographic findings, range of motion (ROM), recurrent instability, patient-reported outcomes, and complications.

Results

92 met inclusion criteria (5693 total patients). Six were studies of iliac crest bone, four of DTA, and 84 using the coracoid bone. 29 studies measured postoperative arthritis showing no development or mild arthritis. 26 studies reported postoperative graft position. 62 studies reported ROM noting decline in internal/external rotation. 87 studies measured postoperative instability with low rates. Rowe Scores with noted improvement across 31/59 (52.5%) studies were seen. Common post operative complications included infection, hematoma, graft fracture, nerve injury, pain, and screw-related irritation.

Conclusion

Despite a trend towards arthroscopic management of recurrent anterior shoulder instability with glenoid deficiency, open procedures continue to provide satisfactory outcomes. Additionally, studies have demonstrated safe and efficacious use of free bone block graft options in the primary and revision setting.

High rate of return to sport and excellent patient-reported outcomes after an open Latarjet procedure

HYPOTHESIS

The purpose of this study was to report return to sport, patient-reported outcomes (PROs), subjective outcomes, and complications or failures in patients who underwent open Latarjet surgery.

METHODS

Patients who underwent open Latarjet surgery performed by 2 fellowship-trained surgeons between August 2006 and November 2018 were included. Prospectively collected data were reviewed. Recurrent instability and revision surgical procedures were recorded. Subjective outcomes included return to sport and fear of reinjury or activity modification as a result of patients' instability history. PROs included the American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons (ASES) score, Short Form 12 Physical Component Summary score, Single Assessment Numeric Evaluation score, Quick Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand score, and satisfaction. Age, sex, sports participation, pain, primary vs. revision surgery (prior failed arthroscopic or open Bankart repair), dislocation number, glenoid bone loss, glenoid track concept, and projected glenoid track were evaluated. Failure was defined as an ASES score <70, recurrent dislocation, or revision instability surgery.

RESULTS

A total of 126 shoulders (125 patients) met the inclusion criteria, with a mean age of 28.1 years (range, 15-57 years). Of 126 shoulders, 7 (5.5%) underwent additional procedures prior to final follow-up and were excluded from outcome analyses; failure occurred in 6 of these shoulders. Mean follow-up data at 3.7 years (range, 2-9.3 years) were attained in 86.6% of patients (103 of 119). All PROs significantly improved from preoperative baseline (ASES score, from 69.7 to 90.2; Single Assessment Numeric Evaluation score, from 55.8 to 85.9; and Quick Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand score, from 28.4 to 10.5). PROs did not differ based on sex, sports participation type, dislocation with or without sports, primary vs. revision procedure, and preoperative dislocation number. No correlations existed between PROs and age, glenoid bone loss, or number of previous surgical procedures. On-track lesions (50 of 105, 47.6%) and projected on-track lesions (90 of 105, 85.7%) correlated with better patient satisfaction but not PROs. Despite not having recurrences, 63 of 99 patients (63.6%) reported activity modifications and 44 of 99 patients (44.4%) feared reinjury. These groups had statistically worse PROs, although the minimal clinically important difference was not met. Return to sport was reported by 97% of patients (86 of 89), with 74% (66 of 89) returning at the same level or slightly below the preinjury level. Revision stabilization surgery was required 6 of 126 cases (4.8%), and 6 of 103 shoulders (5.8%) had ASES scores <70.

CONCLUSION

The open Latarjet procedure led to significant improvements in all PROs, and overall, 97% of patients returned to sport. Fear of reinjury and activity modifications were common after open Latarjet procedures but did not appear to affect clinical outcomes. On-track and projected on-track measurements correlated with better patient satisfaction but not improved PROs.

The Trillat Procedure for Anterior Glenohumeral Instability

»

Anterior glenohumeral instability (AGI) is a challenging condition that requires close attention to osseous and soft-tissue abnormalities. The morphometric variance of the periarticular scapular anatomy may be involved in the pathogenesis of recurrent traumatic anterior instability.

»

The Trillat procedure repositions the coracoid medially and downward by a partial wedge osteotomy, mimicking the sling effect of the Latarjet procedure by moving the conjoint tendon closer to the joint line in throwing position. The Trillat procedure decreases the coracohumeral distance without affecting the integrity of the subscapularis muscle and tendon.

»

Joint preservation methods, such as the Trillat procedure, may be explored in older patients to treat AGI with simultaneous irreparable rotator cuff tears (RCTs) with a static centered head and a functional subscapularis.

»

Shoulder hyperlaxity and instability can be challenging to treat with isolated soft-tissue procedures. In cases without glenoid bone loss, free bone block techniques are ineffective because of the subsequent potential graft resorption, apprehension, or recurrence. The Trillat surgery, in conjunction with an anteroinferior capsuloplasty, seems to be helpful in preventing recurrent instability and in reducing shoulder apprehension.

»

Recently, several variations of the original technique have been described. In the future, anatomical, biomechanical, and clinical studies need to be conducted to further evaluate the morphometric characterization of the procedure, enhance the technical features, improve indications, and avoid coracoid impingement and other potential complications with the Trillat procedure.

Arthroscopic Trillat procedure combined with capsuloplasty: an effective treatment modality for shoulder instability associated with hyperlaxity

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to describe the results of an arthroscopic Trillat procedure utilized to treat patients with symptomatic antero-inferior shoulder instability associated with hyperlaxity.

METHODS

A retrospective review was performed on 19 consecutive shoulders (17 patients, 2 bilateral) who underwent a Trillat procedure combined with anterio-inferior capsulolabral plasty from 2016 to 2019. Patients included in the study presented with shoulder instability combined with shoulder hyperlaxity and no glenoid or humeral bone loss. Clinical assessment included range of motion, apprehension, and instability tests. Outcome measures Constant-Murley score (CMS) scale, Walch-Duplay, ROWE, Subjective Shoulder Value (SSV), Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). Post-operatively, healing of the coracoid osteoclasy was evaluated by CT scan.

RESULTS

The mean follow-up was 24.8 months (range, 12-51). Post-operatively, none of the patients experienced a recurrent dislocation or subluxation and the anterior apprehension test was negative in all shoulders. Post-operative motion deficits of 22.1° ± 15.8 [p < 0.05] and 12.4° ± 10.1 [p < 0.05] loss were documented for ER1 and ER2, respectively. All functional scores exhibited significant improvements. Post-operative CT scan was available in 16 shoulders and revealed coracoid union in 15/16 shoulders and an asymptomatic fibrous non-union without coracoid or implant migration in one patient.

CONCLUSION

The arthroscopic Trillat procedure combined with an antero-inferior capsulolabral plasty is effective in preventing recurrent instability and eliminating shoulder apprehension among patients suffering from anterior and or inferior hyperlaxity.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV.

Bone Fragment Resorption and Clinical Outcomes of Traumatic Bony Bankart Lesion Treated With Arthroscopic Repair Versus Open Latarjet

BACKGROUND

Bony Bankart lesions can perpetuate chronic anterior glenohumeral instability. When surgical treatment is pursued, several factors need to be considered to obtain optimal outcomes.

PURPOSE

To (1) quantitatively describe patterns of bone fragment resorption and associated risk factors for developing glenoid bone loss (GBL) and (2) to compare clinical and radiological results of attritional bone loss treated with either the arthroscopic Bankart or the open Latarjet procedure.

STUDY DESIGN

Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis of prospectively collected data was conducted for patients who underwent arthroscopic stabilization (group A1, 10%-20% GBL; group A2, >20% GBL) or open Latarjet (group B, >10% GBL) for recurrent shoulder instability with bony Bankart lesion. Patient characteristics, number of dislocations, and Western Ontario Shoulder Instability Index (WOSI) scores were obtained. Pre- and postoperative computed tomography imaging was used to quantitatively describe patterns of bone fragment resorption.

RESULTS

A total of 120 consecutive patients (group A1, 40; group A2, 23; group B, 57) were included in the study, with a mean age of 25.6 years (range, 19-35 years). The average follow-up was 5.0 years for all groups (range, 4.83-5.16 years in group A1, 4.58-5.41 years in group A2, and 4.33-5.67 years in group B). The mean times between dislocation event and surgery were 12.8 months (range, 6-32 months) and 13.6 months (range, 6-38 months) for groups A and B, respectively. Redislocation rates were 7.5% in group A1 versus 13.0% in group A2, and only occurred in patients with ≥13.5% GBL. There were no redislocations for group B (0%). Patients had better WOSI scores in group B (234.1 ± 126.9) than in group A (576.1 ± 224.6) (P < .0001). In group A, smaller preoperative bone fragment size displayed a higher percentage of resorption after surgery (r = -0.64; P < .05).

CONCLUSION

A significant inverse relationship exists between preoperative bone fragment size and percentage of postoperative resorption. Patients treated with arthroscopic bony Bankart repair who had final GBL ≥13.5% had worse outcomes. When planned GBL approaches 13.5% in high-demand patients, a smaller fragment size can result in worse clinical outcomes because of resorption. In these cases, choosing the open Latarjet procedure leads to better clinical results.

Failed Latarjet Treated With Full Arthroscopic Eden-Hybinette Procedure Using Two Cortical Suture Buttons Leads to Satisfactory Clinical Outcomes and Low Recurrence Rate

PURPOSE

To report clinical and radiologic outcomes of arthroscopic Eden-Hybinette using 2 cortical suture buttons in a series of patients with previous failed Latarjet and persistent glenoid bone loss.

METHODS

Between 2015 and 2019, patients with recurrent anterior instability after failed Latarjet underwent arthroscopic Eden-Hybinette procedure using 2 cortical buttons for graft fixation. Exclusion criteria were open and primary Eden-Hybinette and less than one year follow-up. Functional assessment was performed using Rowe and Walch-Duplay scores, subjective shoulder value, visual analog scale, and degree of satisfaction. Iliac crest bone graft placement and healing were assessed postoperatively with computed tomography imaging.

RESULTS

A total of 17 patients with a mean age of 28 years (range, 21-43 years) at time of revision were included. The mean glenoid bone loss was 23% (range, 18%-42%). Medium or deep Hill-Sachs lesion (Calandra 2 and 3) was present in 65% of cases. At a mean follow-up of 3 ± 1.6 years, all but 1 patient (94%) considered their shoulder stable, and 15 patients (88%) were satisfied or very satisfied. The subjective shoulder value increased from 51% to 87% (P < .05), the Walch-Duplay increased from 23 to 86 points (P < .05), and Rowe scores improved from 30 to 92 points (P < .05). Apprehension was still positive in 3 patients (17.6%), with this percentage being greater in the presence of Hill-Sachs Calandra 3 (P = .02). Postoperative computed tomography scans showed optimal bone autograft position in all patients (below the glenoid equator and flush to the glenoid rim). Iliac crest bone graft healed to the anterior glenoid neck in 16 shoulders (94%). The rate of recurrent instability was 11.7% but only 1 patient required revision surgery (5.8%).

CONCLUSIONS

Arthroscopic Eden-Hybinette using 2 cortical buttons leads to satisfactory clinical outcomes and a low recurrence rate after failed Latarjet, allowing successful reconstruction of the anterior glenoid rim and simultaneous treatment of capsular deficiency and humeral bone loss.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic, level IV, retrospective case series.

Long-term effect of immobilization in external rotation after first-time shoulder dislocation: an average 18-year follow-up

BACKGROUND

Immobilization in external rotation (ER) after a first-time shoulder dislocation was introduced to reduce the risk of recurrence compared with immobilization in internal rotation (IR), but its efficacy remains controversial. The purpose of this study was to determine the long-term effect of immobilization in ER after a first-time shoulder dislocation.

METHODS

Between October 2000 and March 2004, 198 patients with a first-time anterior dislocation of the shoulder (average age 37) were randomly assigned to immobilization in ER (ER group = 104 shoulders) or IR (IR group = 94 shoulders) for 3 weeks. At an average 2-year follow-up, 159 patients (80.3%) were available for evaluation. In the current study, these 159 patients were further followed up and interviewed by telephone. The following items were evaluated: recurrent instability, apprehensive feeling, surgical intervention, limitation in the range of motion, return to sports, and the Single Assessment Numeric Evaluation (SANE) score.

RESULTS

The average follow-up period was 18.2 years (range, 16-20 years). Fifty-six patients were available for follow-up with the follow-up rate of 35%. The number of recurrent patients was 6 of 27 (22%) in the ER group and 6 of 29 (21%) in the IR group (P = .889). The number of surgically stabilized patients was 3 of 27 (11%) in the ER group and 10 of 29 (34%) in the IR group (P = .038). In total, the recurrence rate was 33% (9 of 27) in the ER group and 55% (16 of 29) in the IR group (P = .100). Adding the surgical cases and those with the SANE score ≤70% as failure cases, the failure rate in the ER group (26%) was significantly lower than that in the IR group (52%) (P = .048). Among those who survived without surgical intervention, there were no significant differences in apprehensive feeling, return to sports, limited range of motion, and the SANE score between the groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Immobilization in ER reduced the risk of surgical intervention compared with IR in the long term.

Anterior Shoulder Instability Part I-Diagnosis, Nonoperative Management, and Bankart Repair-An International Consensus Statement

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to establish consensus statements via a modified Delphi process on the diagnosis, nonoperative management, and Bankart repair for anterior shoulder instability.

METHODS

A consensus process on the treatment using a modified Delphi technique was conducted, with 65 shoulder surgeons from 14 countries across 5 continents participating. Experts were assigned to one of 9 working groups defined by specific subtopics of interest within anterior shoulder instability.

RESULTS

The independent factors identified in the 2 statements that reached unanimous agreement in diagnosis and nonoperative management were age, gender, mechanism of injury, number of instability events, whether reduction was required, occupation, sport/position/level played, collision sport, glenoid or humeral bone-loss, and hyperlaxity. Of the 3 total statements reaching unanimous agreement in Bankart repair, additional factors included overhead sport participation, prior shoulder surgery, patient expectations, and ability to comply with postoperative rehabilitation. Additionally, there was unanimous agreement that complications are rare following Bankart repair and that recurrence rates can be diminished by a well-defined rehabilitation protocol, inferior anchor placement (5-8 mm apart), multiple small-anchor fixation points, treatment of concomitant pathologies, careful capsulolabral debridement/reattachment, and appropriate indications/assessment of risk factors.

CONCLUSION

Overall, 77% of statements reached unanimous or strong consensus. The statements that reached unanimous consensus were the aspects of patient history that should be evaluated in those with acute instability, the prognostic factors for nonoperative management, and Bankart repair. Furthermore, there was unanimous consensus on the steps to minimize complications for Bankart repair, and the placement of anchors 5-8 mm apart. Finally, there was no consensus on the optimal position for shoulder immobilization.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level V, expert opinion.

Clinical Outcomes of the Traditional Latarjet Versus the Congruent Arc Modification for the Treatment of Recurrent Anterior Shoulder Instability: A Meta-analysis

Background:

Few studies have compared clinical outcomes between the traditional Latarjet procedure for anterior shoulder instability and the congruent arc modification to the Latarjet procedure.

Purpose:

To systematically evaluate the literature for the incidence of recurrent instability, clinical outcomes, radiographic findings, and complications for the traditional Latarjet procedure and the congruent arc modification and to compare results of each search.

Study Design:

Systematic review; Level of evidence, 4.

Methods:

A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted according to the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines. We included studies published between January 1990 and October 2020 that described clinical outcomes of the traditional Latarjet and the congruent arc modification with a follow-up range of 2 to 10 years. The difference in surgical technique was analyzed using a chi-square test for categorical variables, while continuous variables were evaluated using a Student t test.

Results:

In total, 26 studies met the inclusion criteria: 20 studies describing the traditional Latarjet procedure in 1412 shoulders, and 6 studies describing the congruent arc modification in 289 shoulders. No difference between procedures was found regarding patient age at surgery, follow-up time, Rowe or postoperative visual analog scores, early or late complications, return-to-sport timing, or incidence of improper graft placement or graft fracture. A significantly greater proportion of male patients underwent glenoid augmentation using the congruent arc modification versus traditional Latarjet (P < .001). When comparing outcomes, the traditional Latarjet procedure demonstrated a lower incidence of fibrous union or nonunion (P = .047) and broken, loose, or improperly placed screws (P < .001), and the congruent arc modification demonstrated improved outcomes with regard to overall return to sport (P < .001), return to sport at the same level (P < .001), incidence of subluxation (P = .003) or positive apprehension (P = .002), and revision surgery for recurrent instability (P = .027).

Conclusion:

Outcomes after the congruent arc modification proved at least equivalent to the traditional Latarjet procedure in terms of recurrent instability and return to sport, although early and late complications were equivalent. The congruent arc procedure may be an acceptable alternative to traditional Latarjet for the treatment of anterior shoulder instability with glenoid bone loss; however, long-term outcomes of this procedure are needed.

Current concepts in anterior glenohumeral instability: diagnosis and treatment

The glenohumeral joint is the most dislocated articulation, accounting for more than 50% of all joint dislocations. The reason behind shoulder instability should be investigated in detail for successful management, and the treatment plan should be individualized for all patients. Several classification systems have been proposed for glenohumeral instability. A physical exam is mandatory no matter what classification system is used. When treating patients with anterior shoulder instability, surgeons need to be aware of the critical size of the bone loss, which is commonly seen. The glenoid track concept was clinically adopted, and the measurement of the glenoid track for surgical decision-making is recommended. Detailed assessment of existing soft tissue injury to the labrum, capsule, glenohumeral ligaments, and rotator cuff is also mandatory as their presence influences the surgical outcome. Rehabilitation, arthroscopic repair techniques, open Bankart procedure, capsular plication, remplissage, Latarjet technique, iliac crest, and other bone grafts offer the surgeon different treatment options according to the type of patient and the lesions to be treated. Three-dimensional (3D) technologies can help to evaluate glenoid and humeral defects. Patient-specific guides are low-cost surgical instruments and can be used in shoulder instability surgery. 3D printing will undoubtedly become an essential tool to achieve the best results in glenohumeral instability surgery.