1
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Wallace RL, Dash KM, Araújo TQ, Walsh EJ, Das S, Hochberg R. Ultrastructural characterization of the putative defensive glands (warts) in the sessile, colonial rotifer Sinantherina socialis (Gnesiotrocha; Flosculariidae). ZOOL ANZ 2023; 304:10-20. [PMID: 37484813 PMCID: PMC10361403 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcz.2023.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Abstract
Female Sinantherina socialis are freshwater, sessile, colonial rotifers that possess two pairs of distinctive glands (warts) located below the corona. Previous studies demonstrated that colonies are unpalatable to many invertebrate and vertebrate predators; those authors suggested that the warts were a possible source of a chemical deterrent to predation. Here we explore wart ultrastructure and cytochemisty to determine whether the warts function as exocrine glands and if their contents display any allomone-like chemistry, respectively. Externally, the warts appear as elevated bulges without pores. Internally, the warts are specialized regions of the integumental syncytium and therefore acellular. The lipid stain Nile Red labels all four warts. Two lipid membrane probes (sphingomyelin and phosphatidylinositol) also bind the warts and may be staining internal secretion vesicle membranes. In fact, wart ultrastructure is defined by hundreds of membrane-bound secretion vesicles packed tightly together. The vesicles are mostly electron-lucent and crowded into a well-defined cytoplasmic space. The cytoplasm also contains abundant ribosomes, rough endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, and Golgi, but nuclei are generally positioned peripheral to the packed vesicles. Absence of muscles around the warts or any signs of direct innervation suggests expulsion of gland contents is forced by general body contraction. A single specimen with 'empty' warts implies that secretions are released en masse from all glands simultaneously. The identity of the chemical secretion remains to be determined, but the lack of osmium and uranyl acetate staining suggests a low abundance or absence of phenols, unsaturated lipids, or NH2 and -COOH groups. This absence, combined with the positive Nile Red staining, is interpreted as evidence that vesicles contain saturated fatty acids such as lactones that are unpalatable to predators.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Rick Hochberg
- University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA, 01854, USA
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2
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Buonanno F, Trenti F, Achille G, Vallesi A, Guella G, Ortenzi C. Chemical Defence by Sterols in the Freshwater Ciliate Stentor polymorphus. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11121749. [PMID: 36552259 PMCID: PMC9774955 DOI: 10.3390/biology11121749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Heterotrich ciliates typically retain toxic substances in specialized ejectable organelles, called extrusomes, which are used in predator-prey interactions. In this study, we analysed the chemical defence strategy of the freshwater heterotrich ciliate Stentor polymorphus against the predatory ciliate Coleps hirtus, and the microturbellarian flatworm Stenostomum sphagnetorum. The results showed that S. polymorphus is able to defend itself against these two predators by deploying a mix of bioactive sterols contained in its extrusomes. Sterols were isolated in vivo and characterized by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), as ergosterol, 7-dehydroporiferasterol, and their two peroxidized analogues. The assessment of the toxicity of ergosterol and ergosterol peroxide against various organisms, indicated that these sterols are essential for the effectiveness of the chemical defence in S. polymorphus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Buonanno
- Laboratory of Protistology and Biology Education, Department of Education, Cultural Heritage, Tourism (ECHT), University of Macerata, 62100 Macerata, Italy
- Correspondence: (F.B.); (F.T.)
| | - Francesco Trenti
- Bioorganic Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Physics, University of Trento, 38050 Trento, Italy
- Correspondence: (F.B.); (F.T.)
| | - Gabriele Achille
- Laboratory of Protistology and Biology Education, Department of Education, Cultural Heritage, Tourism (ECHT), University of Macerata, 62100 Macerata, Italy
| | - Adriana Vallesi
- Laboratory of Eukaryotic Microbiology and Animal Biology, School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, 62032 Camerino, Italy
| | - Graziano Guella
- Bioorganic Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Physics, University of Trento, 38050 Trento, Italy
| | - Claudio Ortenzi
- Laboratory of Protistology and Biology Education, Department of Education, Cultural Heritage, Tourism (ECHT), University of Macerata, 62100 Macerata, Italy
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3
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Alimenti C, Buonanno F, Di Giuseppe G, Guella G, Luporini P, Ortenzi C, Vallesi A. Bioactive Molecules from Ciliates: Structure, Activity, and Applicative Potential. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2022; 69:e12887. [PMID: 35014102 PMCID: PMC9542385 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Ciliates are a rich source of molecules synthesized to socialize, compete ecologically, and interact with prey and predators. Their isolation from laboratory cultures is often straightforward, permitting the study of their mechanisms of action and their assessment for applied research. This review focuses on three classes of these bioactive molecules: (i) water‐borne, cysteine‐rich proteins that are used as signaling pheromones in self/nonself recognition phenomena; (ii) cell membrane‐associated lipophilic terpenoids that are used in interspecies competitions for habitat colonization; (iii) cortical granule‐associated molecules of various chemical nature that primarily serve offence/defense functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Alimenti
- Laboratory of Eukaryotic Microbiology and Animal Biology, School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, 62032, Camerino, (MC), Italy
| | - F Buonanno
- Laboratory of Protistology and Biology Education, Department of Education, Cultural Heritage, and Tourism (ECHT), Università degli Studi di Macerata, 62100, Macerata, Italy
| | - G Di Giuseppe
- Unit of Protistology, Department of Biology, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy; MARinePHARMA Center, University of Pisa, Italy
| | - G Guella
- Bioorganic Chemistry Lab, Department of Physics, University of Trento, 38123, Povo, Trento, Italy
| | - P Luporini
- Laboratory of Eukaryotic Microbiology and Animal Biology, School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, 62032, Camerino, (MC), Italy
| | - C Ortenzi
- Laboratory of Protistology and Biology Education, Department of Education, Cultural Heritage, and Tourism (ECHT), Università degli Studi di Macerata, 62100, Macerata, Italy
| | - A Vallesi
- Laboratory of Eukaryotic Microbiology and Animal Biology, School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, 62032, Camerino, (MC), Italy
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4
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Buonanno F, Catalani E, Cervia D, Cimarelli C, Marcantoni E, Ortenzi C. Natural Function and Structural Modification of Climacostol, a Ciliate Secondary Metabolite. Microorganisms 2020; 8:E809. [PMID: 32471240 PMCID: PMC7356801 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8060809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The review highlights the main results of two decades of research on climacostol (5-[(2Z)-non-2-en-1-yl]benzene-1,3-diol), the resorcinolic lipid produced and used by the ciliated protozoan Climacostomum virens for chemical defense against a wide range of predators, and to assist its carnivorous feeding. After the first studies on the physiological function of climacostol, the compound and some analogues were chemically synthesized, thus allowing us to explore both its effect on different prokaryotic and eukaryotic biological systems, and the role of its relevant structural traits. In particular, the results obtained in the last 10 years indicate climacostol is an effective antimicrobial and anticancer agent, bringing new clues to the attempt to design and synthesize additional novel analogues that can increase or optimize its pharmacological properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Buonanno
- Laboratory of Protistology and Biology Education, Department of Education, Cultural Heritage, and Tourism (ECHT), Università degli Studi di Macerata, 62100 Macerata, Italy;
| | - Elisabetta Catalani
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-food and Forest systems (DIBAF), Università degli Studi della Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy; (E.C.); (D.C.)
| | - Davide Cervia
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-food and Forest systems (DIBAF), Università degli Studi della Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy; (E.C.); (D.C.)
| | - Cristina Cimarelli
- School of Science and Technology, Section of Chemistry, Università degli Studi di Camerino, 62032 Camerino, Italy; (C.C.); (E.M.)
| | - Enrico Marcantoni
- School of Science and Technology, Section of Chemistry, Università degli Studi di Camerino, 62032 Camerino, Italy; (C.C.); (E.M.)
| | - Claudio Ortenzi
- Laboratory of Protistology and Biology Education, Department of Education, Cultural Heritage, and Tourism (ECHT), Università degli Studi di Macerata, 62100 Macerata, Italy;
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Zhan Z, Li J, Xu K. Ciliate Environmental Diversity Can Be Underestimated by the V4 Region of SSU rDNA: Insights from Species Delimitation and Multilocus Phylogeny of Pseudokeronopsis (Protist, Ciliophora). Microorganisms 2019; 7:microorganisms7110493. [PMID: 31717798 PMCID: PMC6920991 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7110493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2019] [Revised: 10/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Metabarcoding and high-throughput sequencing methods have greatly improved our understanding of protist diversity. Although the V4 region of small subunit ribosomal DNA (SSU-V4 rDNA) is the most widely used marker in DNA metabarcoding of eukaryotic microorganisms, doubts have recently been raised about its suitability. Here, using the widely distributed ciliate genus Pseudokeronopsis as an example, we assessed the potential of SSU-V4 rDNA and four other nuclear and mitochondrial markers for species delimitation and phylogenetic reconstruction. Our studies revealed that SSU-V4 rDNA is too conservative to distinguish species, and a threshold of 97% and 99% sequence similarity detected only one and three OTUs, respectively, from seven species. On the basis of the comparative analysis of the present and previously published data, we proposed the multilocus marker including the nuclear 5.8S rDNA combining the internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2) and the hypervariable D2 region of large subunit rDNA (LSU-D2) as an ideal barcode rather than the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 gene, and the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 as a candidate metabarcoding marker for ciliates. Furthermore, the compensating base change and tree-based criteria of ITS2 and LSU-D2 were useful in complementing the DNA barcoding and metabarcoding methods by giving second structure and phylogenetic evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zifeng Zhan
- Laboratory of Marine Organism Taxonomy and Phylogeny, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (Z.Z.); (J.L.)
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao 266071, China
- Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Ju Li
- Laboratory of Marine Organism Taxonomy and Phylogeny, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (Z.Z.); (J.L.)
- Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Kuidong Xu
- Laboratory of Marine Organism Taxonomy and Phylogeny, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; (Z.Z.); (J.L.)
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao 266071, China
- Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Correspondence:
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6
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Catalani E, Buonanno F, Lupidi G, Bongiorni S, Belardi R, Zecchini S, Giovarelli M, Coazzoli M, De Palma C, Perrotta C, Clementi E, Prantera G, Marcantoni E, Ortenzi C, Fausto AM, Picchietti S, Cervia D. The Natural Compound Climacostol as a Prodrug Strategy Based on pH Activation for Efficient Delivery of Cytotoxic Small Agents. Front Chem 2019; 7:463. [PMID: 31316972 PMCID: PMC6609918 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2019.00463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We synthesized and characterized MOMO as a new small molecule analog of the cytotoxic natural product climacostol efficiently activated in mild extracellular acidosis. The synthesis of MOMO had a key step in the Wittig olefination for the construction of the carbon-carbon double bond in the alkenyl moiety of climacostol. The possibility of obtaining the target (Z)-alkenyl MOMO derivative in very good yield and without presence of the less active (E)-diastereomer was favored from the methoxymethyl ether (MOM)-protecting group of hydroxyl functions in aromatic ring of climacostol aldehyde intermediate. Of interest, the easy removal of MOM-protecting group in a weakly acidic environment allowed us to obtain a great quantity of climacostol in biologically active (Z)-configuration. Results obtained in free-living ciliates that share the same micro-environment of the climacostol natural producer Climacostomum virens demonstrated that MOMO is well-tolerated in a physiological environment, while its cytotoxicity is rapidly and efficiently triggered at pH 6.3. In addition, the cytostatic vs. cytotoxic effects of acidified-MOMO can be modulated in a dose-dependent manner. In mouse melanoma cells, MOMO displayed a marked pH-sensitivity since its cytotoxic and apoptotic effects become evident only in mild extracellular acidosis. Data also suggested MOMO being preferentially activated in the unique extra-acidic microenvironment that characterizes tumoural cells. Finally, the use of the model organism Drosophila melanogaster fed with an acidic diet supported the efficient activity and oral delivery of MOMO molecule in vivo. MOMO affected oviposition of mating adults and larvae eclosion. Reduced survival of flies was due to lethality during the larval stages while emerging larvae retained their ability to develop into adults. Interestingly, the gut of eclosed larvae exhibited an extended damage (cell death by apoptosis) and the brain tissue was also affected (reduced mitosis), demonstrating that orally activated MOMO efficiently targets different tissues of the developing fly. These results provided a proof-of-concept study on the pH-dependence of MOMO effects. In this respect, MOM-protection emerges as a potential prodrug strategy which deserves to be further investigated for the generation of efficient pH-sensitive small organic molecules as pharmacologically active cytotoxic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Catalani
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-Food and Forest Systems, Università degli Studi della Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
| | - Federico Buonanno
- Laboratory of Protistology and Biology Education, Department of Education, Cultural Heritage and Tourism, Università degli Studi di Macerata, Macerata, Italy
| | - Gabriele Lupidi
- School of Sciences and Technologies, Section of Chemistry, Università degli Studi di Camerino, Camerino, Italy
| | - Silvia Bongiorni
- Department of Ecological and Biological Sciences, Università degli Studi della Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
| | - Riccardo Belardi
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-Food and Forest Systems, Università degli Studi della Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
| | - Silvia Zecchini
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences “Luigi Sacco” (DIBIC), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Matteo Giovarelli
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences “Luigi Sacco” (DIBIC), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Marco Coazzoli
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences “Luigi Sacco” (DIBIC), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Clara De Palma
- Unit of Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital “Luigi Sacco”-ASST Fatebenefratelli Sacco, Milan, Italy
| | - Cristiana Perrotta
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences “Luigi Sacco” (DIBIC), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Emilio Clementi
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences “Luigi Sacco” (DIBIC), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
- Scientific Institute IRCCS “Eugenio Medea”, Bosisio Parini, Italy
| | - Giorgio Prantera
- Department of Ecological and Biological Sciences, Università degli Studi della Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
| | - Enrico Marcantoni
- School of Sciences and Technologies, Section of Chemistry, Università degli Studi di Camerino, Camerino, Italy
| | - Claudio Ortenzi
- Laboratory of Protistology and Biology Education, Department of Education, Cultural Heritage and Tourism, Università degli Studi di Macerata, Macerata, Italy
| | - Anna Maria Fausto
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-Food and Forest Systems, Università degli Studi della Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
| | - Simona Picchietti
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-Food and Forest Systems, Università degli Studi della Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
| | - Davide Cervia
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-Food and Forest Systems, Università degli Studi della Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
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Buonanno F, Catalani E, Cervia D, Proietti Serafini F, Picchietti S, Fausto AM, Giorgi S, Lupidi G, Rossi FV, Marcantoni E, Petrelli D, Ortenzi C. Bioactivity and Structural Properties of Novel Synthetic Analogues of the Protozoan Toxin Climacostol. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11010042. [PMID: 30650514 PMCID: PMC6356496 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11010042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2018] [Revised: 01/07/2019] [Accepted: 01/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Climacostol (5-[(2Z)-non-2-en-1-yl]benzene-1,3-diol) is a resorcinol produced by the protozoan Climacostomum virens for defence against predators. It exerts a potent antimicrobial activity against bacterial and fungal pathogens, inhibits the growth of several human and rodent tumour cells, and is now available by chemical synthesis. In this study, we chemically synthesized two novel analogues of climacostol, namely, 2-methyl-5 [(2Z)-non-2-en-1-yl]benzene-1,3-diol (AN1) and 5-[(2Z)-non-2-en-1-yl]benzene-1,2,3-triol (AN2), with the aim to increase the activity of the native toxin, evaluating their effects on prokaryotic and free-living protists and on mammalian tumour cells. The results demonstrated that the analogue bearing a methyl group (AN1) in the aromatic ring exhibited appreciably higher toxicity against pathogen microbes and protists than climacostol. On the other hand, the analogue bearing an additional hydroxyl group (AN2) in the aromatic ring revealed its ability to induce programmed cell death in protistan cells. Overall, the data collected demonstrate that the introduction of a methyl or a hydroxyl moiety to the aromatic ring of climacostol can effectively modulate its potency and its mechanism of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Buonanno
- Laboratory of Protistology and Biology Education, Department of Education, Cultural Heritage, and Tourism (ECHT), Università degli Studi di Macerata, 62100 Macerata, Italy.
| | - Elisabetta Catalani
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-food and Forest systems (DIBAF), Università degli Studi della Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy.
| | - Davide Cervia
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-food and Forest systems (DIBAF), Università degli Studi della Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy.
| | - Francesca Proietti Serafini
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-food and Forest systems (DIBAF), Università degli Studi della Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy.
| | - Simona Picchietti
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-food and Forest systems (DIBAF), Università degli Studi della Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy.
| | - Anna Maria Fausto
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-food and Forest systems (DIBAF), Università degli Studi della Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy.
| | - Simone Giorgi
- School of Sciences and Technologies, Section of Chemistry, Università degli Studi di Camerino, 62032 Camerino, Italy.
| | - Gabriele Lupidi
- School of Sciences and Technologies, Section of Chemistry, Università degli Studi di Camerino, 62032 Camerino, Italy.
| | - Federico Vittorio Rossi
- School of Sciences and Technologies, Section of Chemistry, Università degli Studi di Camerino, 62032 Camerino, Italy.
| | - Enrico Marcantoni
- School of Sciences and Technologies, Section of Chemistry, Università degli Studi di Camerino, 62032 Camerino, Italy.
| | - Dezemona Petrelli
- School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, Università degli Studi di Camerino, 62032 Camerino, Italy.
| | - Claudio Ortenzi
- Laboratory of Protistology and Biology Education, Department of Education, Cultural Heritage, and Tourism (ECHT), Università degli Studi di Macerata, 62100 Macerata, Italy.
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Buonanno F, Anesi A, Guella G, Ortenzi C. Blepharismins used for chemical defense in two ciliate species of the genus Blepharisma, B. stoltei and B. undulans (Ciliophora: Heterotrichida). THE EUROPEAN ZOOLOGICAL JOURNAL 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/24750263.2017.1353145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- F. Buonanno
- Laboratory of Protistology and Biology Education, Department of ECHT, University of Macerata , Italy
| | - A. Anesi
- Bioorganic Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Physics, University of Trento , Italy
| | - G. Guella
- Bioorganic Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Physics, University of Trento , Italy
- Biophysical Institute, CNR , Italy
| | - C. Ortenzi
- Laboratory of Protistology and Biology Education, Department of ECHT, University of Macerata , Italy
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