1
|
Wang Y, Tang DWS. Soil chemical fumigation alters soil phosphorus cycling: effects and potential mechanisms. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2024; 15:1289270. [PMID: 38855465 PMCID: PMC11157047 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2024.1289270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
Soil chemical fumigation is an effective and popular method to increase agricultural productivity. However, the broad-spectrum bioactivity of fumigants causes harm to soil beneficial microorganisms involved in the soil phosphorous cycle, such as soil phosphorus solubilizing microorganisms (PSMs). We review the effects of soil chemical fumigation on soil phosphorus cycling, and the potential underlying mechanisms that ultimately lead to altered phosphorus availability for crops. These complex processes involve the highly diverse PSM community and a plethora of soil phosphorus forms. We discuss phosphatizing amendments aimed at counteracting the possible negative effects of fumigation on phosphorus availability, phosphorus use efficiency, and crop yields. We also emphasize distinguishing between the effects on soil phosphorus cycling caused by the chemical fumigants, and those caused by the fumigation process (e.g. plastic mulching). These are typically conflated in the literature; distinguishing them is critical for identifying appropriate amendments to remediate possible post-fumigation soil phosphorus deficiencies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Darrell W. S. Tang
- Soil Physics and Land Management Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ren L, Li W, Zhang D, Fang W, Yan D, Wang Q, Jin X, Li Y, Cao A. Silica modified copper-based alginate/chitosan hybrid hydrogel to control soil fumigant release, reduce emission and enhance bioactivity. Int J Biol Macromol 2023:125132. [PMID: 37268067 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.125132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Revised: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Soil fumigant has been extensively used for excellent efficacy on soil-borne diseases. However, rapid emission and insufficient effective duration typically limit its application. In this study, hybrid silica/polysaccharide hydrogel was proposed (SIL/Cu/DMDS) by emulsion-gelation method to encapsulate dimethyl disulfide (DMDS). The orthogonal study was used to optimize the preparation parameters for LC and EE of SIL/Cu/DMDS, which was 10.39 % and 71.05 %, respectively. Compared with silica, the time for 90 % of the total emissions was extended by 4.36 times. The hydrogel possessed a longer persistent duration and the degradation half-life of DMDS was 3.47 times greater than that of silica alone. Moreover, the electrostatic interaction between abundant groups of polysaccharide hydrogel bestowed DMDS with pH-triggered release behavior. Additionally, SIL/Cu/DMDS had excellent water holding and water retention capacity. The bioactivity of the hydrogel was 58.1 % higher than that of DMDS TC due to the strong synergistic effect between DMDS and the carriers (chitosan and Cu2+), and showed obvious biosafety to cucumber seeds. This study seeks to provide a potential approach to develop hybrid polysaccharide hydrogel to control soil fumigants release, reduce emission and enhance bioactivity in plant protection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lirui Ren
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Wenjing Li
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Daqi Zhang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Wensheng Fang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Dongdong Yan
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Qiuxia Wang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xi Jin
- Hebei Technology Innovation Center for Green Management of Soil-borne Diseases, Baoding University, Hebei 071000, China
| | - Yuan Li
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Aocheng Cao
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
He DC, Li FH, Wu M, Luo HL, Qiu LQ, Ma XR, Lu JW, Liu WR, Ying GG. Emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from application of commercial pesticides in China. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2022; 314:115069. [PMID: 35447450 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.115069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 04/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Applying pesticides can result in emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), but little is known about VOC emission characteristics and the quantities in particular regions. We investigated the use of pesticides in China based on a large-scale survey of 330 counties in 31 provinces and evaluated the national pesticide VOC emission potentials based on thermogravimetric analysis of 1930 commercial pesticides. The results showed that herbicides were the most extensively used pesticide category in China, accounting for 43.47%; emulsifiable concentrate (EC), suspension concentrate, and wettable powder were the dominant pesticide formulations, with proportions of 26.75%, 17.68%, and 17.31%, respectively. The VOC emission potential coefficient (EP) of the liquid formulations was higher than the solid formulations, and the maximum mean EP was 45.59% for EC and the minimum was 0.76% for WP. Among 437 high-VOC pesticide products used in China, EC accounted for 83.52%, and 16.93% of those contained abamectin. The total VOC emissions derived from commercial pesticides in China were 280 kt (kilotons) in 2018, and 65.35% of the contribution was derived from EC. Shandong, Hunan, and Henan were the three provinces with the highest pesticide VOC emissions (>21 kt/y). The emission rate of VOCs from pesticides was 24.80 t/d in China, which was higher than in San Joaquin Valley, California. These findings suggest that some comprehensive measures (e.g., perfecting pesticide management policy, strict supervision for pesticide production and use, and strengthening pesticide reduction publicity) should be taken to reduce VOC emissions from pesticide applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- De-Chun He
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the PR China, Guangzhou, 510655, China
| | - Fang-Hong Li
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the PR China, Guangzhou, 510655, China
| | - Mian Wu
- College of Resources and Environment, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, 410128, China
| | - Hui-Li Luo
- College of Resources and Environment, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, 410128, China
| | - Li-Qing Qiu
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the PR China, Guangzhou, 510655, China
| | - Xiao-Rui Ma
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the PR China, Guangzhou, 510655, China
| | - Jia-Wei Lu
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the PR China, Guangzhou, 510655, China
| | - Wang-Rong Liu
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Health Risk Assessment, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the PR China, Guangzhou, 510655, China.
| | - Guang-Guo Ying
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety, School of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Ren L, Hao B, Fang W, Zhang D, Cheng H, Li Q, Yan D, Li Y, Wang Q, Zhou Z, Jin X, Cao A. Combination of modified biochar and polyurea microcapsules to co-encapsulate a fumigant via interface polymerization for controlled release and enhanced bioactivity. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2022; 78:73-85. [PMID: 34432938 DOI: 10.1002/ps.6609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Soil fumigants-the most effective agrochemicals for managing soil-borne diseases-have been used extensively. However, high volatility, moderate toxicity and insufficient effective duration considerably limit their application. In the present study, interface polymerization was used to combine modified biochar (BC) and polyurea microcapsules (MCs) to co-encapsulate allyl isothiocyanate (AITC), developing a model fumigant for controlled release (AITC@BC-MCs). RESULTS The physical characteristics of BC modified by sand-milling were significantly improved. In addition, chemical properties and morphological features of AITC@BC-MCs characterized by integrated methods revealed successful preparation of BC-MCs. Compared with monolayer MCs, BC-MCs could significantly delay AITC release owing to the composite obstruction effect. Moreover, modifying BC endowed the cargo molecules with a pH-responsive release property. Additionally, this composite showed a longer persistent duration by prolonging AITC degradation half-life, which was 3.2-3.5-fold greater than that of the AITC technical concentrate under different soil conditions. Finally, the control efficacy of the AITC@BC-MC against pathogens, including nematodes and fungi, as well as against weeds was significantly enhanced at the same dose, but the composite did not inhibit seed germination and growth after 10 days when fumigated soil was aerated. CONCLUSION Construction of a composite encapsulation system enhanced pesticide efficacy, reduced dose via controlled release and delayed fumigant degradation in soil, indicating the great potential of this strategy for developing an effective and environmentally friendly fumigant formulation. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lirui Ren
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Baoqiang Hao
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Wensheng Fang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Daqi Zhang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Hongyan Cheng
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Qingjie Li
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Dongdong Yan
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yuan Li
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Qiuxia Wang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhiqiang Zhou
- College of Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Xi Jin
- Joint Center of Soil Remediation of Baoding University and Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Baoding, China
| | - Aocheng Cao
- Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Bioremediation of Toxic Pesticides in Soil Using Microbial Products. Fungal Biol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-54422-5_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
|
6
|
Qin J, Ashworth DJ, Yates SR, Shen G. Coupled use of Fe-impregnated biochar and urea-hydrogen peroxide to simultaneously reduce soil-air emissions of fumigant and improve crop growth. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2020; 396:122762. [PMID: 32361626 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Revised: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Reducing the emissions of soil fumigants such as 1,3-dichloropropene (1,3-D) is essential to protecting air quality. Although biochar is useful in reducing such emissions, biochar-adsorbed fumigants may desorb and cause secondary air pollution. This study investigated the degradation of 1,3-D on iron (Fe)-impregnated biochar (FBC) amended with urea-hydrogen peroxide (UHP). The results indicated the degradation rate of trans-1,3-D on FBC-UHP was 54-fold higher than that on pristine biochar (PBC). Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) combined with other characterization methods revealed that the presence of semiquinone-type radicals in FBC effectively accelerated the Fe(III)/Fe(II) cycleto maintain enough Fe(IIII) for UHP activation and ·OH generation. ·OH, rather than ·O2-, was the dominant active oxidant. Soil column tests showed that application of FBC to the soil surface reduced cumulative 1,3-D emissions from 34.80 % (bare soil) to 0.81%. After the column experiment, the mixing of the FBC with UHP resulted in the residual cis-isomers decreasing from 32.5% to 10.5%. Greenhouse bioassays showed that mixing post-1,3-D degradation FBC-UHP with soil significantly promoted lettuce growth relative to PBC. The findings of this study provide a new approach for biochar application, especially for the emission reduction of hazardous volatile organic compounds from soil.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiaolong Qin
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, PR China
| | - Daniel J Ashworth
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States; USDA-ARS, Salinity Laboratory, 450 West Big Springs Road, Riverside, California 92507, United States.
| | - Scott R Yates
- USDA-ARS, Salinity Laboratory, 450 West Big Springs Road, Riverside, California 92507, United States
| | - Guoqing Shen
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Yates SR, Ashworth DJ. Simulating emissions of 1,3-dichloropropene after soil fumigation under field conditions. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 621:444-452. [PMID: 29190567 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.11.278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2017] [Revised: 11/22/2017] [Accepted: 11/24/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Soil fumigation is an important agricultural practice used to produce many vegetable and fruit crops. However, fumigating soil can lead to atmospheric emissions which can increase risks to human and environmental health. A complete understanding of the transport, fate, and emissions of fumigants as impacted by soil and environmental processes is needed to mitigate atmospheric emissions. Five large-scale field experiments were conducted to measure emission rates for 1,3-dichloropropene (1,3-D), a soil fumigant commonly used in California. Numerical simulations of these experiments were conducted in predictive mode (i.e., no calibration) to determine if simulation could be used as a substitute for field experimentation to obtain information needed by regulators. The results show that the magnitude of the volatilization rate and the total emissions could be adequately predicted for these experiments, with the exception of a scenario where the field was periodically irrigated after fumigation. In addition, the timing of the daily peak 1,3-D emissions was not accurately predicted for these experiments due to the peak emission rates occurring during the night or early-morning hours. This study revealed that more comprehensive mathematical models (or adjustments to existing models) are needed to fully describe emissions of soil fumigants from field soils under typical agronomic conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S R Yates
- USDA-ARS, U.S. Salinity Laboratory, 450 W. Big Springs Rd., Riverside, CA 92507, United States.
| | - D J Ashworth
- USDA-ARS, U.S. Salinity Laboratory, 450 W. Big Springs Rd., Riverside, CA 92507, United States; University of California, Department of Environmental Sciences, Riverside 92521, United States
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Yang X, Zhu W, Koziel JA, Cai L, Jenks WS, Laor Y, Leeuwen JHV, Hoff SJ. Improved quantification of livestock associated odorous volatile organic compounds in a standard flow-through system using solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2015; 1414:31-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2015.08.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Revised: 08/01/2015] [Accepted: 08/16/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
|
9
|
Wang Q, Yan D, Liu P, Mao L, Wang D, Fang W, Li Y, Ouyang C, Guo M, Cao A. Chloropicrin Emission Reduction by Soil Amendment with Biochar. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0129448. [PMID: 26075904 PMCID: PMC4468190 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0129448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2014] [Accepted: 05/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Biochar has sorption capacity, and can be used to enhance the sequestration of volatile organic contaminants such as pesticides in soil. Chloropicrin (CP) is an important soil fumigant for the production of many fruit and vegetable crops, but its emissions must be minimized to reduce exposure risks and air pollution. The objective of this study was to determine the capacity of biochar to adsorb CP and the effect of biochar amendments to soil on CP emission, concentration in the soil gas phase, degradation in soil and CP bioactivity for controlling soil borne pests. CP emission and concentration in the soil air phase were measured from packed soil columns after fumigant injection at 20-cm depth and application of selected doses of biocharto the surface 5 cm soil. Laboratory incubation and fumigation experiments were conducted to determine the capacity of biochar to adsorb CP, the effects on CP degradation and, separately, CP’s bioactivity on soil borne pests in soil amended with biochar. Biochar amendment at 2% to 5% (w/w) greatly reduced total CP emission losses by 85.7% - 97.7% compared to fumigation without biochar. CP concentrations in the soil gas-phase, especially in the top 5 cm of soil, were reduced within 48 h following application. The half-life of CP decreased from 13.6 h to 6.4 h as the biochar rate increased from 0% to 5%. CP and its metabolite (dichloronitromethane) both degraded more rapidly in pure biochar than in soil. The biochar used in the present study had a maximum adsorption capacity for CP of less than 5 mg g-1. There were no negative effects on pathogen and nematode control when the biochar used in this study was less than 1% (on a weight basis) in soil. Biochar amendment to soil reduced the emissions of CP. CP concentrations in the top 5 cm of soil gas-phase were reduced. CP degradation was accelerated with the addition of biochar. The biochar used in the present study had a low adsorption capacity for CP. There were no negative effects on pathogen and nematode control when the biochar amendment rate was less than 1% (by weight). The findings would be useful for establishing guidelines for biochar use in soil fumigation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qiuxia Wang
- Plant Protection Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, State key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Disease and Insect Pests, Beijing, China
| | - Dongdong Yan
- Plant Protection Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, State key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Disease and Insect Pests, Beijing, China
| | - Pengfei Liu
- Plant Protection Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, State key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Disease and Insect Pests, Beijing, China
| | - Liangang Mao
- Plant Protection Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, State key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Disease and Insect Pests, Beijing, China
| | - Dong Wang
- U.S. Department of Agriculture—Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS), San Joaquin Valley Agricultural Sciences Center, Water Management Research Unit, Parlier, California, United States of America
| | - Wensheng Fang
- Plant Protection Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, State key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Disease and Insect Pests, Beijing, China
| | - Yuan Li
- Plant Protection Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, State key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Disease and Insect Pests, Beijing, China
| | - Canbin Ouyang
- Plant Protection Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, State key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Disease and Insect Pests, Beijing, China
| | - Meixia Guo
- Plant Protection Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, State key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Disease and Insect Pests, Beijing, China
| | - Aocheng Cao
- Plant Protection Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, State key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Disease and Insect Pests, Beijing, China
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Yates SR, Ashworth DJ, Zheng W, Zhang Q, Knuteson J, van Wessenbeeck IJ. Emissions of 1,3-Dichloropropene and Chloropicrin after Soil Fumigation under Field Conditions. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:5354-5363. [PMID: 26001417 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b01309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Soil fumigation is an important agronomic practice in the production of many high-value vegetable and fruit crops, but the use of chemical fumigants can lead to excessive atmospheric emissions. A large-scale (2.9 ha) field experiment was conducted to obtain volatilization and cumulative emission rates for two commonly used soil fumigants under typical agronomic practices: 1,3-dichloropropene (1,3-D) and chloropicrin. The aerodynamic method and the indirect back-calculation method using ISCST3 and CALPUFF dispersion models were used to estimate flux loss from the treated field. Over the course of the experiment, the daily peak volatilization rates ranged from 12 to 30 μg m(-2) s(-1) for 1,3-D and from 0.7 to 2.6 μg m(-2) s(-1) for chloropicrin. Depending on the method used for quantification, total emissions of 1,3-D and chloropicrin, respectively, ranged from 16 to 35% and from 0.3 to 1.3% of the applied fumigant. A soil incubation study showed that the low volatilization rates measured for chloropicrin were due to particularly high soil degradation rates observed at this field site. Understanding and quantifying fumigant emissions from agricultural soil will help in developing best management practices to reduce emission losses, reducing adverse impacts to human and ecosystem health, and providing inputs for conducting risk assessments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Scott R Yates
- †U.S. Salinity Laboratory, USDA-ARS, 450 West Big Springs Road, Riverside, California 92507, United States
| | - Daniel J Ashworth
- †U.S. Salinity Laboratory, USDA-ARS, 450 West Big Springs Road, Riverside, California 92507, United States
- ‡Department of Environmental Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Wei Zheng
- ‡Department of Environmental Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Qiaoping Zhang
- †U.S. Salinity Laboratory, USDA-ARS, 450 West Big Springs Road, Riverside, California 92507, United States
| | - James Knuteson
- §Dow Agrosciences, Indianapolis, Indiana 46268, United States
| | | |
Collapse
|