Long-term impact of tillage practices and phosphorus fertilization on soil phosphorus forms as determined by p nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy

Biochar fertilization effects on soil bacterial community and soil phosphorus forms depends on the application rate

Biochar plays a key role in soil phosphorus (P) forms and distribution by affecting soil biochemical characteristics with relevant effects on the microbial community. In this study, we aimed to study the role of biochar in the variation of microbial community and P forms, and the relationships between soil properties, microbial community, and P forms. Here, we conducted a five-year field experiment NPK minerally fertilized with different application rates of biochar; control (B0, 0 kg ha^-1 yr^-1), low rate (B1500, 1500 kg ha^-1 yr^-1), medium rate (B3000, 3000 kg ha^-1 yr^-1), high rate (B6000, 6000 kg ha^-1 yr^-1). Our study showed that the highest increases in bacterial diversity and abundances coincided with increases in P forms typically retained in bacterial cells (β-glucosidase, adenosine monophosphate-AMP, choline phosphate, and glucose-6 phosphate) and occurred at medium application rates. At low application rates, N₂-fixing and P solubilizing and mineralizing bacteria (Sphingomonas, Haliangium, and Bradyrhizobium) increased. P forms retained in bacterial cells decreased at the highest application rates while the most stable forms such as DNA and inositol hexaphosphate (IHP), steadily increased. Stereoisomers of IHP derived from soil microbes (scyllo-IHP and D-chiro-IHP) accounted for the total IHP increases at high application rates. pH and available P and K and total P were highest at high biochar application rates whereas the proportion of organic P was reduced. The most relevant genus in such soils was Gemmatimonas, a polyphosphate accumulating and pyrogenic material degrading bacterium. Therefore, it appears that applying biochar at higher rates reduced the abundance of plant growth promoting bacteria while enhancing the abundance of P accumulating and pyrogenic degrading types.

Tillage Management Impacts on Soil Phosphorus Variability under Maize–Soybean Rotation in Eastern Canada

Conservation tillage, including no-tillage (NT), is being used increasingly with respect to conventional tillage (CT) to mitigate soil erosion, improve water conservation and prevent land degradation. However, NT increases soil phosphorus (P) stratification, causing P runoff and eutrophication. For sustainable P management, fertilization must be balanced between P sources and actual crop demand. To reduce P losses to the environment, it is important to better understand P spatial variability in NT fields. Little is known about tillage impacts on field-scale P spatial variabi-lity in precision agriculture. This study examines tillage impacts on spatial variability of soil-avai-lable P in a maize–soybean rotation, in two commercial fields, denoted CT (10.8 ha) and NT (9.5 ha), with the aim of improving P fertilizer recommendations in Eastern Canada. NPK fertilizers were applied to the soils (Humic Gleysols) following local recommendations. Soil samples were collected in fall 2014 in regular 35 m by 35 m grids, at 0–5 and 5–20 cm depths, providing 141 and 134 geore-ferenced points for CT and NT fields, respectively. Available P and other elements were analyzed by Mehlich-3 extraction (M3), and the P saturation index (P/Al)M3 was calculated. Variability of soil-available P in both fields ranged from moderate to very high (32% to 60%). A mean (P/Al)M3 of 3% was found in both layers under CT, compared to 8% in the 0–5 cm layer and 6% in the 5–20 cm layer under NT. Relationships between P indices and other elements differed between tillage practices. This study highlights the need to improve P fertilizer recommendations in Eastern Canada.

Land use and landscape position influence soil organic phosphorus speciation in a mixed land use watershed

Land use can significantly alter soil P forms, which will influence P loss in runoff. Organic P (P_o ) compounds are an important component of soil P, but their forms and cycling in soils with different land uses are still poorly understood. In addition, streambanks are potential sources of P loss; P forms and concentrations in streambank soils may vary with land use, affecting potential P loss to water. This study used solution ³¹ P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy to characterize and quantify P in interior and streambank soils (0-10 cm) under duplicate sites from four different land uses along streams in the Missisquoi River basin (VT, USA): silage corn, hay meadow, emergent wetlands, and forest. Orthophosphate monoesters were the dominant P compound class regardless of land use or landscape position. Forest soils had the lowest P_o concentrations, less labile P forms than other soils, and significantly lower concentrations of total inositol hexakisphosphates and total orthophosphate monoesters compared with corn soils. Riparian buffer zones for agricultural soils lowered P concentrations in streambank soils for many soil P pools relative to interior soils. The wetland soils of this study had P concentrations and P forms that were similar to those for interior agricultural soils and generally showed no reduction in P concentrations in streambank soils relative to interior soils. This is consistent with the role of wetlands as P sinks in the landscape but also suggests these wetlands should be carefully monitored to minimize P accumulation, especially in streambank soils.

Spatial Variability of Soil Phosphorus Indices under Two Contrasting Grassland Fields in Eastern Canada

Phosphorus (P) is an essential nutrient for grassland production systems. However, continuous applications of P fertilizers result in soil P accumulations, increasing the risk of P losses in runoff and erosion. This study aims to investigate the field-scale variability of soil-test P (STP) in two contrasting grassland fields using descriptive statistics and geostatistics for accurate recommendations on soil sampling strategy and sustainable approaches to P management. A young grassland (YG; 2 years) and an old grassland (OG; 10 years under permanent pasture) were classified as humo-ferric podzol and received organic fertilizers. Soil samples were collected in 16-m by 16-m triangular grids at two depths (0–5 and 5–20 cm). They were analyzed for available P and other soil elements extracted using the Mehlich-3 method (M3). The agri-environmental P saturation index (P/Al)M3 was calculated. Phosphorus accumulation was observed in OG (0–5 cm) as a result of long-term manure applications. Repeated applications of organic fertilizers can impact the long-term buildup of soil P, thus decreasing soil P va-riability and spatial dependence in permanent grasslands. A soil sampling strategy focusing on the 0–5 cm layer should be retained in permanent grasslands for sustainable P recommendations in Eastern Canada.

Changes of oxygen isotope values of soil P pools associated with changes in soil pH

Field data about the effect of soil pH on phosphorus (P) cycling is limited. A promising tool to study P cycling under field conditions is the ¹⁸O:¹⁶O ratio of phosphate (δ¹⁸O_P). In this study we investigate whether the δ¹⁸O_P can be used to elucidate the effect of soil pH on P cycling in grasslands. Soils and plants were sampled from different fertilisation and lime treatments of the Park Grass long term experiment at Rothamsted Research, UK. The soils were sequentially extracted to isolate different soil P pools, including available P and corresponding δ¹⁸O_P values were determined. We did not observe changes in plant δ¹⁸O_P value, but soil P δ¹⁸O_P values changed, and lower δ¹⁸O_P values were associated with higher soil pH values. At sites where P was not limiting, available P δ¹⁸O_P increased by up to 3‰ when lime was applied. We show that the δ¹⁸O_P method is a useful tool to investigate the effect of pH on soil P cycling under field conditions as it highlights that different soil processes must govern P availability as pH shifts. The next challenge is now to identify these underlying processes, enabling better management of soil P at different pH.

Characterization and source identification of organic phosphorus in sediments of a hypereutrophic lake

High phosphorus (P) load and consequent algal bloom are critical issues because of their harmful effects to aquatic ecosystems. The organic phosphorus (Po) cycling and hydrolyzation pathway in the sediments of a hypereutrophic lake area with high algae biomass were investigated using stable isotopes (δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N) along with C/N ratios, a sequential extraction procedure, ³¹P NMR spectrum, and alkaline phosphatase activity (APA) was measured simultaneously. C/N ratios lower than 10 combined with lighter δ¹³C (-23.5 to -25.2‰) and δ¹⁵N values (3.7-9.5‰) indicated that endogenous algal debris contributed to the predominant proportions of P-containing organic matter in the sediments. Sequential extraction results showed that Po fractions decreased as nonlabile Po > moderately labile Po > biomass-Po. Decreasing humic-associated Po (HA-Po) in sediments downward suggested the degradation of high-molecular-weight Po compounds on the geological time scale to low-molecular-weight Po including fulvic-associated Po (FA-Po), which is an important source of labile Po in the sediment. An analysis of the solution ³¹P NMR spectrum analysis showed that important Po compound groups decreased in the order of orthophosphate monoesters > DNA-Po > phospholipids. The significant correlation indicated that orthophosphate monoesters were the predominant components of HA-Po. Rapid hydrolysis of labile orthophosphate diesters further facilitated the accumulation of orthophosphate monoesters in the sediments. Additionally, the simultaneously upward increasing trend demonstrated that APA accelerated the mineralization of Po into dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP), which might feed back to eutrophication in algae-dominant lakes. The significantly low half-life time (T_1/2) for important Po compound groups indicated faster metabolism processes, including hydrolysis and mineralization, in hypereutrophic lakes with high algae biomass. These findings provided improved insights for better understanding of the origin and cycling processes as well as management of Po in hypereutrophic lakes.

Characterization of fluvo-aquic soil phosphorus affected by long-term fertilization using solution 31P NMR spectroscopy

Reducing the applications of mineral phosphorus (P) fertilizers and supplementing them by organic fertilizers is becoming a necessary practice in the North China Plain due to overuse of mineral P fertilizers and improper disposal of organic wastes. Knowledge is needed about how the long-term substitution of mineral fertilizers by organic fertilizers affects soil P forms in order to understand soil P transformation and crop P uptake. In this study, we used solution ³¹P nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to characterize P forms in fluvo-aquic soil after 26 years of different fertilization management strategies, organic compost (OM), half compost in combination with half mineral fertilizer NPK (1/2 OM), mineral fertilizer NPK (NPK), mineral fertilizer NK (NK), and an unfertilized control (CK). Results showed that the P extraction efficiency using NaOH-EDTA varied from 13.0 to 27.7% for the soils of the treatments. ³¹P NMR spectra indicated that the majority of P was in the form of orthophosphate for all the treatments, which constituted 64.3-83.5% of the total extracted P. The application of P fertilizers significantly increased the concentrations of orthophosphate, monoesters and diesters regardless of the P fertilization method, although the proportions of monoesters and diesters were higher in CK. The proportions and concentrations of orthophosphate significantly decreased when all mineral fertilizers were replaced by compost. There was no significant difference in the proportions and concentrations of total organic P, corrected monoesters and diesters in NaOH-EDTA extracts of soils among NPK, 1/2OM and OM treatments. Decreasing mineral P fertilizers and partly replacing them by organic fertilizer in fluvo-aquic soil might increase soil test (Olsen) P and crop P uptake through the degradation of applied organic P forms.

Integration of poultry manure and phosphate solubilizing bacteria improved availability of Ca bound P in calcareous soils

A laboratory incubation experiment was executed to examine the role of phosphate solubilizing bacteria (with PSB and without PSB) and poultry manure (4, 8 and 12 t PM ha^-1) in improving P mobilization/mineralization under four different lime regimes (4.78, 10, 15 and 20% CaCO₃ M/M) for 56 days using three factorial complete randomized design (CRD) with triplicates. Phosphorus availability progressively increased over time irrespective of PSB inoculation, PM and lime levels. The PSB and PM (4-12 t ha^-1) addition into soil significantly increased Olsen P at all incubation intervals. Post incubation PSB survival increased by 12 and 9% with inoculation and 12 t PM ha^-1 over control and 4 t PM ha^-1, respectively. Liming ominously reduced P mobilization/mineralization by 1.3, 2.6 and 10.5% and PSB population by 6.6, 7.3 and 16.3% at 10, 15 and 20% (lime), respectively, over control at day 56. However, PSB and PM addition (with increasing rate) into soil significantly counterbalanced these ill effects of lime. Thus, the application of PSB and PM is a promising measure to enhance P availability in calcareous soils and shall be practiced.

Potential Phosphorus Export in Snowmelt as Influenced by Fertilizer Placement Method in the Canadian Prairies

Placement strategies for P fertilizer can affect P availability to crops and influence the amounts and forms of P removed from soil in runoff, contributing to eutrophication. On the Canadian prairies, most runoff occurs during snowmelt. Two adjacent farm fields in Saskatchewan, Canada, were used to assess the effects of spring P fertilizer placement on crop P uptake, residual soil P, and potential P export in simulated snowmelt. One was in conventional tillage (CT) with no history of P fertilization, and the other was in a no-till (NT) system with multiyear P fertilization at recommended rates. Fertilization (monoammonium phosphate) treatments were no P fertilizer (control); seed placed, deep banded, and broadcast and incorporated at 20 kg PO ha; and broadcast treatments at 20, 40, and 80 kg PO ha. Yield and P uptake were not affected by placement method. Water-extractable P at the soil surface after harvest was unaffected by placement or rate at either site but increased below the 5-cm depth at the NT site in 2016. Broadcast treatments increased P in runoff relative to in-soil P placement for the 20- and 80-kg PO ha treatments at the CT site and for the 80-kg PO ha treatment at the NT site. Thus, in-soil application of P fertilizer appears to be an effective strategy to reduce the risk of P export in snowmelt runoff.

Phosphate-Solubilizing Bacteria Nullify the Antagonistic Effect of Soil Calcification on Bioavailability of Phosphorus in Alkaline Soils

Phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) reduce the negative effects of soil calcification on soil phosphorus (P) nutrition. In this incubation study, we explored the ability of PSB (control and inoculated) to release P from different P sources [single super phosphate (SSP), rock phosphate (RP), poultry manure (PM) and farm yard manure (FYM)] with various soil lime contents (4.78, 10, 15 and 20%) in alkaline soil. PSB inoculation progressively enriched Olsen extractable P from all sources compared to the control over the course of 56 days; however, this increase was greater from organic sources (PM and FYM) than from mineral P sources (SSP and RP). Lime addition to the soil decreased bioavailable P, but this effect was largely neutralized by PSB inoculation. PSB were the most viable in soil inoculated with PSB and amended with organic sources, while lime addition decreased PSB survival. Our findings imply that PSB inoculation can counteract the antagonistic effect of soil calcification on bioavailable P when it is applied using both mineral and organic sources, although organic sources support this process more efficiently than do mineral P sources. Therefore, PSB inoculation combined with organic manure application is one of the best options for improving soil P nutrition.

Revised Method and Outcomes for Estimating Soil Phosphorus Losses from Agricultural Land in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed Model

Current restoration efforts for the Chesapeake Bay watershed mandate a timeline for reducing the load of nutrients and sediment into receiving waters. The Chesapeake Bay watershed model (WSM) has been used for two decades to simulate hydrology and nutrient and sediment transport; however, spatial limitations of the WSM preclude edge-of-field scale representation of phosphorus (P) losses. Rather, the WSM relies on literature-derived, county-scale rates of P loss (targets) for simulated land uses. An independent field-scale modeling tool, Annual Phosphorus Loss Estimator (APLE), was used as an alternative to the current WSM approach. Identical assumptions of county-level acreage, soil properties, nutrient management practices, and transport factors from the WSM were used as inputs to APLE. Incorporation of APLE P-loss estimates resulted in greater estimated total P loss and a revised spatial pattern of P loss compared with the WSM's original targets. Subsequently, APLE's revised estimates for P loss were substituted into the WSM and resulted in improved WSM calibration performance at up to 79% of tributary monitoring stations. The incorporation of APLE into the WSM will improve its ability to assess P loss and the impact of field management on Chesapeake Bay water quality.

Opportunities for mobilizing recalcitrant phosphorus from agricultural soils: a review

BACKGROUND

Phosphorus (P) fertilizer is usually applied in excess of plant requirement and accumulates in soils due to its strong adsorption, rapid precipitation and immobilisation into unavailable forms including organic moieties. As soils are complex and diverse chemical, biochemical and biological systems, strategies to access recalcitrant soil P are often inefficient, case specific and inconsistently applicable in different soils. Finding a near-universal or at least widely applicable solution to the inefficiency in agricultural P use by plants is an important unsolved problem that has been under investigation for more than half a century.

SCOPE

In this paper we critically review the strategies proposed for the remobilization of recalcitrant soil phosphorus for crops and pastures worldwide. We have additionally performed a meta-analysis of available soil 31P-NMR data to establish the potential agronomic value of different stored P forms in agricultural soils.

CONCLUSIONS

Soil inorganic P stocks accounted on average for 1006 ± 115 kg ha-1 (57 ± 7%), while the monoester P pool accounted for 587 ± 32 kg ha-1 (33 ± 2%), indicating the huge potential for the future agronomic use of the soil legacy P. New impact driven research is needed in order to create solutions for the sustainable management of soil P stocks.

Long-term Changes in Grassland Soil Phosphorus with Fertilizer Application and Withdrawal

Long-term phosphorus (P) applications can increase soil P concentrations in excess of agronomic optima, posing a risk to water quality. Once fertilization stops, however, it may take time for soil P concentrations to decline. Whereas P fertilization adds orthophosphate, little is known about changes in other soil P forms during P buildup and drawdown. This study examined changes in P pools (total P, Olsen P, Mehlich P, and water-extractable P) and P forms determined by P-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (P-NMR) in grazed grassland plots from Northern Ireland. Between 1994 and 1999, all plots received 8.3 kg P ha yr with variable rates of nitrogen (100-500 kg N ha yr). From 2000 to 2005, plots received 0, 20, 40, or 80 kg P ha yr and 250 kg N ha yr; from 2005 to 2010, no P fertilizer was applied to any plots. In 2005, soil P pool concentrations at the highest P fertilization rates were significantly elevated compared with those in 2000 but had decreased to 2000 concentrations by 2010. In soils receiving no P, soil P pool concentrations were significantly lower than those in 1994 only in 2010. There were few changes in P forms determined by P-NMR. Orthophosphate followed the same trend observed for the soil P pools; total organic P, total inositol phosphates, and total orthophosphate monoesters and diesters were highest in 2010 in the soil receiving no P fertilizer for 10 yr. For these soils, fertilizer application and cessation influenced inorganic P more than organic P.

Identification of the Core Set of Carbon-Associated Genes in a Bioenergy Grassland Soil

Despite the central role of soil microbial communities in global carbon (C) cycling, little is known about soil microbial community structure and even less about their metabolic pathways. Efforts to characterize soil communities often focus on identifying differences in gene content across environmental gradients, but an alternative question is what genes are similar in soils. These genes may indicate critical species or potential functions that are required in all soils. Here we identified the "core" set of C cycling sequences widely present in multiple soil metagenomes from a fertilized prairie (FP). Of 226,887 sequences associated with known enzymes involved in the synthesis, metabolism, and transport of carbohydrates, 843 were identified to be consistently prevalent across four replicate soil metagenomes. This core metagenome was functionally and taxonomically diverse, representing five enzyme classes and 99 enzyme families within the CAZy database. Though it only comprised 0.4% of all CAZy-associated genes identified in FP metagenomes, the core was found to be comprised of functions similar to those within cumulative soils. The FP CAZy-associated core sequences were present in multiple publicly available soil metagenomes and most similar to soils sharing geographic proximity. In soil ecosystems, where high diversity remains a key challenge for metagenomic investigations, these core genes represent a subset of critical functions necessary for carbohydrate metabolism, which can be targeted to evaluate important C fluxes in these and other similar soils.

Investigation of soil legacy phosphorus transformation in long-term agricultural fields using sequential fractionation, P K-edge XANES and solution P NMR spectroscopy

Understanding legacy phosphorus (P) build-up and draw-down from long-term fertilization is essential for effective P management. Using replicated plots from Saskatchewan, Canada, with P fertilization from 1967 to 1995 followed by either P fertilization or P cessation (1995-2010), soil P was characterized in surface and subsurface layers using sequential fractionation, P K-edge X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) and solution (31)P nuclear magnetic resonance (P NMR) spectroscopy. Legacy P from a 28-year build-up was sufficient for 15 years of wheat cultivation, resulting in no significant differences in crop yield in 2010. In surface soils, soil test (Olsen) P decreased significantly in unfertilized plots compared with 1995, which was reflected in declining aluminum (hydr)oxide-associated inorganic P by fractionation and XANES. Furthermore, XANES analysis revealed a decrease of calcium-associated P in 2010-unfertilized soils at both depths and an increase of Fe (hydr)oxides-associated P in the 2010-fertilized and -unfertilized surface soils relative to the 1995 soils. Increased total organic P and orthophosphate diesters by P NMR and accumulated inositol hexaphosphate by XANES were observed in surface soils with P fertilization cessation. In subsurface soils, few legacy P transformations were detected. These results provide important information about legacy P to improve agricultural sustainability while mitigating water quality deterioration.