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Bernauer H, Schlör A, Maier J, Hanack K, Bannert N, Ivanusic D. Analysis of antibodies from whole-cell immunization by a tANCHOR cell-based ELISA. MICROPUBLICATION BIOLOGY 2024; 2024:10.17912/micropub.biology.001201. [PMID: 38698909 PMCID: PMC11063790 DOI: 10.17912/micropub.biology.001201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Revised: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/05/2024]
Abstract
Monitoring specific antibodies derived from whole-cell immunization through cell-based ELISA methods poses challenges due to humoral responses against various cell proteins. In this report, we outline a technique involving pre-adsorption on cells to remove undesirable antibodies from immune serum. This step provides the subsequent monitoring of antibodies specific to the targeted antigen using a tANCHOR-based ELISA. Notably, this approach accelerates result acquisition, eliminating the necessity to purify the expressed antigen or obtain a customized peptide for coating assay plates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hubert Bernauer
- ATG:biosynthetics GmbH, Weberstraße 40, 79249 Merzhausen, Germany
| | - Anja Schlör
- new/era/mabs GmbH, August-Bebel-Str. 89, 14482 Potsdam, Germany
- Institute for Biology and Biochemistry, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknechtstr. 24-25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Josef Maier
- ATG:biosynthetics GmbH, Weberstraße 40, 79249 Merzhausen, Germany
- IStLS, Härlestr. 24/1, 78727 Oberndorf a.N., Germany
| | - Katja Hanack
- new/era/mabs GmbH, August-Bebel-Str. 89, 14482 Potsdam, Germany
- Institute for Biology and Biochemistry, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknechtstr. 24-25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Norbert Bannert
- Sexually transmitted bacterial pathogens and HIV (FG18), Robert Koch-Institute, Nordufer 20, 13353 Berlin, Germany
| | - Daniel Ivanusic
- Sexually transmitted bacterial pathogens and HIV (FG18), Robert Koch-Institute, Nordufer 20, 13353 Berlin, Germany
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2
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Ivanusic D, Maier J, Icli S, Falcone V, Bernauer H, Bannert N. tANCHOR-cell-based assay for monitoring of SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies rapidly adaptive to various receptor-binding domains. iScience 2024; 27:109123. [PMID: 38380248 PMCID: PMC10877956 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2024.109123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Revised: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Conventional neutralizing enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) systems for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) mimic the protein-protein interaction between angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and the receptor-binding domain (RBD). However, an easy and rapidly adaptative ELISA-based system for testing neutralizing antibodies against upcoming SARS-CoV-2 variants is urgently needed. In this study, we closed this gap by developing a tANCHOR-cell-based RBD neutralization assay that avoids time-consuming protein expression and purification followed by coating on ELISA plates. This cell-based assay can be rapidly adopted to monitor neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) against upcoming SARS-CoV-2 variants. We show that the results obtained with the tANCHOR-cell-based assay system strongly correlate with commercially available surrogate assays for testing NAbs. Moreover, this technique can directly measure binding between cell-surface-exposed RBDs and soluble ACE2. With this technique, the degree of antibody escape elicited by emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants in current vaccination regimens can be determined rapidly and reliably.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Ivanusic
- Sexually transmitted bacterial pathogens and HIV (FG18), Robert Koch-Institute, 13353 Berlin, Germany
| | - Josef Maier
- ATG:biosynthetics GmbH, 79249 Merzhausen, Germany
| | - Suheda Icli
- Sexually transmitted bacterial pathogens and HIV (FG18), Robert Koch-Institute, 13353 Berlin, Germany
| | - Valeria Falcone
- Freiburg University Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Virology, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | | | - Norbert Bannert
- Sexually transmitted bacterial pathogens and HIV (FG18), Robert Koch-Institute, 13353 Berlin, Germany
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3
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Bernauer H, Maier J, Bannert N, Ivanusic D. tANCHOR cell-based ELISA approach as a surrogate for antigen-coated plates to monitor specific IgG directed to the SARS-CoV-2 receptor-binding domain. Biol Methods Protoc 2024; 9:bpae001. [PMID: 38332985 PMCID: PMC10850845 DOI: 10.1093/biomethods/bpae001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Revised: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) systems use plates coated with peptides or expressed and purified proteins to monitor immunoglobulins derived from patient serum. However, there is currently no easy, flexible, and fast adaptive ELISA-based system for testing antibodies directed against new severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants. In this study, we utilized the tANCHOR protein display system that provides a cell surface decorated with the receptor-binding domain (RBD) to monitor specific antibodies derived from SARS-CoV-2 convalescent and vaccinated individuals directed against it. To test sera from vaccinees or convalescent individuals, only the RBD coding sequence needs to be cloned in the tANCHOR vector system and transfected into HeLa cells. Time-consuming protein expression, isolation, and purification followed by coating assay plates are not necessary. With this technique, the immune evasion of new SARS-CoV-2 variants from current vaccination regimes can be examined quickly and reliably.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Josef Maier
- ATG:biosynthetics GmbH, 79249 Merzhausen, Germany
| | - Norbert Bannert
- Sexually Transmitted Bacterial Pathogens and HIV (FG18), Robert Koch-Institute, 13353 Berlin, Germany
| | - Daniel Ivanusic
- Sexually Transmitted Bacterial Pathogens and HIV (FG18), Robert Koch-Institute, 13353 Berlin, Germany
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4
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Mantovanelli L, Gaastra BF, Poolman B. Fluorescence-based sensing of the bioenergetic and physicochemical status of the cell. CURRENT TOPICS IN MEMBRANES 2021; 88:1-54. [PMID: 34862023 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctm.2021.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Fluorescence-based sensors play a fundamental role in biological research. These sensors can be based on fluorescent proteins, fluorescent probes or they can be hybrid systems. The availability of a very large dataset of fluorescent molecules, both genetically encoded and synthetically produced, together with the structural insights on many sensing domains, allowed to rationally design a high variety of sensors, capable of monitoring both molecular and global changes in living cells or in in vitro systems. The advancements in the fluorescence-imaging field helped researchers to obtain a deeper understanding of how and where specific changes occur in a cell or in vitro by combining the readout of the fluorescent sensors with the spatial information provided by fluorescent microscopy techniques. In this review we give an overview of the state of the art in the field of fluorescent biosensors and fluorescence imaging techniques, and eventually guide the reader through the choice of the best combination of fluorescent tools and techniques to answer specific biological questions. We particularly focus on sensors for probing the bioenergetics and physicochemical status of the cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Mantovanelli
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Bauke F Gaastra
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Bert Poolman
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands.
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5
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Mallo N, Ovciarikova J, Martins-Duarte ES, Baehr SC, Biddau M, Wilde ML, Uboldi AD, Lemgruber L, Tonkin CJ, Wideman JG, Harding CR, Sheiner L. Depletion of a Toxoplasma porin leads to defects in mitochondrial morphology and contacts with the endoplasmic reticulum. J Cell Sci 2021; 134:272536. [PMID: 34523684 PMCID: PMC8572010 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.255299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC) is a ubiquitous channel in the outer membrane of the mitochondrion with multiple roles in protein, metabolite and small molecule transport. In mammalian cells, VDAC protein, as part of a larger complex including the inositol triphosphate receptor, has been shown to have a role in mediating contacts between the mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum (ER). We identify VDAC of the pathogenic apicomplexan Toxoplasma gondii and demonstrate its importance for parasite growth. We show that VDAC is involved in protein import and metabolite transfer to mitochondria. Further, depletion of VDAC resulted in significant morphological changes in the mitochondrion and ER, suggesting a role in mediating contacts between these organelles in T. gondii. This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper. Summary: Depletion of the Toxoplasma voltage-dependent anion channel highlights the importance of endoplasmic reticulum–mitochondria membrane contact sites in maintaining organelle morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Mallo
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Jana Ovciarikova
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Erica S Martins-Duarte
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 486 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Stephan C Baehr
- Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution, School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Marco Biddau
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Mary-Louise Wilde
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC 3086, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Alessandro D Uboldi
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC 3086, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Leandro Lemgruber
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK.,Glasgow Imaging Facility, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Christopher J Tonkin
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, VIC 3086, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Jeremy G Wideman
- Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution, School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - Clare R Harding
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Lilach Sheiner
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
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The large extracellular loop of CD63 interacts with gp41 of HIV-1 and is essential for establishing the virological synapse. Sci Rep 2021; 11:10011. [PMID: 33976357 PMCID: PMC8113602 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-89523-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) persists lifelong in infected individuals and has evolved unique strategies in order to evade the immune system. One of these strategies is the direct cell-to-cell spread of HIV-1. The formation of a virological synapse (VS) between donor and target cell is important for this process. Tetraspanins are cellular proteins that are actively involved in the formation of a VS. However, the molecular mechanisms of recruiting host proteins for the cell–cell transfer of particles to the VS remains unclear. Our study has mapped the binding site for the transmembrane envelope protein gp41 of HIV-1 within the large extracellular loop (LEL) of CD63 and showed that this interaction occurs predominantly at the VS between T cells where viral particles are transferred. Mutations within the highly conserved CCG motif of the tetraspanin superfamily abrogated recruiting of expressed HIV-1 GFP fused Gag core protein and CD63 to the VS. This demonstrates the biological significance of CD63 for enhanced formation of a VS. Since cell–cell spread of HIV-1 is a major route of persistent infection, these results highlight the central role of CD63 as a member of the tetraspanin superfamily during HIV-1 infection and pathogenesis.
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Abstract
A novel tool for the presentation of peptides and small proteins on the surface of human cells has been developed. Our tANCHOR system utilizes tetraspanin anchors containing heterologous amino acid sequences inserted instead of the large extracellular loop. This technology allows a highly effective extracellular display of epitopes for antibody binding studies and many other potential applications.
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Gadbery JE, Sampson NS. Use of an Isotope-Coded Mass Tag (ICMT) Method To Determine the Orientation of Cholesterol Oxidase on Model Membranes. Biochemistry 2018; 57:5370-5378. [PMID: 30125103 PMCID: PMC6171977 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.8b00788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Although the interfacial membrane protein cholesterol oxidase is structurally and kinetically well-characterized, its orientation in and mode of interaction with cholesterol-containing membranes have not been established. Cholesterol oxidase can alter the structure of the cell membrane in pathogenic bacteria and is thus a potential antimicrobial drug target. We recently developed a mass spectrometry-based isotope-coded mass tag (ICMT) labeling method to monitor the real-time solvent-accessible surface of peripheral membrane proteins, such as cholesterol oxidase. The ICMT strategy utilizes maleimide-based isotope tags that covalently react with cysteine residues. In this study, by comparing the ICMT labeling rates of cysteine variants of cholesterol oxidase, we determined which residues of the protein were engaged with the protein-lipid interface. We found that upon addition of cholesterol-containing lipid vesicles, four cysteine residues in a cluster near the substrate entrance channel are labeled more slowly with ICMT probes than in the absence of vesicles, indicating that these four residues were in contact with the membrane surface. From these data, we generated a model of how cholesterol oxidase is oriented when bound to the membrane. In conclusion, this straightforward method, which requires only microgram quantities of protein, offers several advantages over existing methods for the investigation of interfacial membrane proteins and can be applied to a number of different systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- John E Gadbery
- Biochemistry and Structural Biology Graduate Program , Stony Brook University , Stony Brook , New York 11794-5215 , United States
| | - Nicole S Sampson
- Biochemistry and Structural Biology Graduate Program , Stony Brook University , Stony Brook , New York 11794-5215 , United States.,Department of Chemistry , Stony Brook University , Stony Brook , New York 11794-3400 , United States
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9
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Santos MF, Rappa G, Karbanová J, Kurth T, Corbeil D, Lorico A. VAMP-associated protein-A and oxysterol-binding protein-related protein 3 promote the entry of late endosomes into the nucleoplasmic reticulum. J Biol Chem 2018; 293:13834-13848. [PMID: 30018135 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.003725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Revised: 07/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The endocytic pathway plays an instrumental role in recycling internalized molecules back to the plasma membrane or in directing them to lysosomes for degradation. We recently reported a new role of endosomes-the delivery of components from extracellular vesicles (EVs) to the nucleoplasm of recipient cells. Using indirect immunofluorescence, FRET, immunoisolation techniques, and RNAi, we report here a tripartite protein complex (referred to as the VOR complex) that is essential for the nuclear transfer of EV-derived components by orchestrating the specific localization of late endosomes into nucleoplasmic reticulum. We found that the VOR complex contains the endoplasmic reticulum-localized vesicle-associated membrane protein (VAMP)-associated protein A (VAP-A), the cytoplasmic oxysterol-binding protein-related protein 3 (ORP3), and late endosome-associated small GTPase Rab7. The silencing of VAP-A or ORP3 abrogated the association of Rab7-positive late endosomes with nuclear envelope invaginations and, hence, the transport of endocytosed EV-derived components to the nucleoplasm of recipient cells. We conclude that the VOR complex can be targeted to inhibit EV-mediated intercellular communication, which can have therapeutic potential for managing cancer in which the release of EVs is dysregulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark F Santos
- From the Roseman Cancer Center and Department of Pathology, Roseman University College of Medicine, Las Vegas, Nevada 89135
| | - Germana Rappa
- From the Roseman Cancer Center and Department of Pathology, Roseman University College of Medicine, Las Vegas, Nevada 89135
| | | | - Thomas Kurth
- the Biotechnology Center and.,DFG-Center for Regenerative Therapies, Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering, Technische Universität Dresden, Tatzberg 47-49, 01307 Dresden, Germany, and
| | - Denis Corbeil
- From the Roseman Cancer Center and Department of Pathology, Roseman University College of Medicine, Las Vegas, Nevada 89135, .,the Biotechnology Center and.,DFG-Center for Regenerative Therapies, Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering, Technische Universität Dresden, Tatzberg 47-49, 01307 Dresden, Germany, and
| | - Aurelio Lorico
- From the Roseman Cancer Center and Department of Pathology, Roseman University College of Medicine, Las Vegas, Nevada 89135, .,the Mediterranean Institute of Oncology Foundation, Via Penninazzo 11, 95029 Viagrande, Italy
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10
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Ivanusic D, Pietsch H, König J, Denner J. Absence of IL-10 production by human PBMCs co-cultivated with human cells expressing or secreting retroviral immunosuppressive domains. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0200570. [PMID: 30001404 PMCID: PMC6042780 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0200570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunosuppression by retroviruses including the human immunodeficiency virus—1 (HIV-1) is well known, however the mechanisms how retroviruses induce this immunosuppression is not fully investigated. It was shown that non-infectious retroviral particles as well as retroviral or recombinant retroviral transmembrane envelope (TM) proteins demonstrated immunosuppressive properties. The same was shown for peptides corresponding to a highly conserved domain in the TM protein. This domain is called immunosuppressive (ISU) domain and it induces modulation of the cytokine release of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from healthy donors. In addition, it changes the gene expression of these cells. Common indications for the immunosuppressive activity were tumour growth in vivo and interleukin—10 (IL-10) release from human PBMCs in vitro. Single mutations in the ISU domain abrogated the immunosuppressive activity. In order to develop a new model system for the expression of the ISU domain and presentation to PBMCs which is not prone to possible endotoxin contaminations, two expression systems were developed. In the first system, designated pOUT, retroviral proteins containing the ISU domain were expressed and released into the cell culture medium, and in the second system, tANCHOR, the ISU domain was presented by a tetraspanin-anchored sequence on the cell surface of human cells. Both systems were exploited to express the wild-type (wt) ISU domains of HIV-1, of the porcine endogenous retrovirus (PERV) and of the murine leukaemia virus (MuLV) as well as to express mutants (mut) of these ISU domains. PERV is of special interest in the context of virus safety of xenotransplantation using pig organs. Expression of the TM proteins was demonstrated by confocal laser scanning microscopy, ELISA and Western blot analyses using specific antibodies. However, when cells expressing and releasing the ISU were co-incubated with human PBMCs, no increased production of IL-10 was observed when compared with the mutants. Similar results were obtained when the released TM proteins were concentrated by immunoprecipitation and added to PBMCs. We suggest that the absence of IL-10 induction can be explained by a low amount of protein, by the lack of a biologically active conformation or the absence of additional factors.
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11
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Huang G, Massoudi D, Muir AM, Joshi DC, Zhang CL, Chiu SY, Greenspan DS. WBSCR16 Is a Guanine Nucleotide Exchange Factor Important for Mitochondrial Fusion. Cell Rep 2018; 20:923-934. [PMID: 28746876 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2017.06.090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2017] [Revised: 06/19/2017] [Accepted: 06/30/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Regulated inter-mitochondrial fusion/fission is essential for maintaining optimal mitochondrial respiration and control of apoptosis and autophagy. In mammals, mitochondrial fusion is controlled by outer membrane GTPases MFN1 and MFN2 and by inner membrane (IM) GTPase OPA1. Disordered mitochondrial fusion/fission contributes to various pathologies, and MFN2 or OPA1 mutations underlie neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we show that the WBSCR16 protein is primarily associated with the outer face of the inner mitochondrial membrane and is important for mitochondrial fusion. We provide evidence of a WBSCR16/OPA1 physical interaction in the intact cell and of a WBSCR16 function as an OPA1-specific guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF). Homozygosity for a Wbscr16 mutation causes early embryonic lethality, whereas neurons of mice heterozygous for the mutation have mitochondria with reduced membrane potential and increased susceptibility to fragmentation upon exposure to stress, suggesting roles for WBSCR16 deficits in neuronal pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guorui Huang
- Department of Cell and Regenerative Biology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Dawiyat Massoudi
- Department of Cell and Regenerative Biology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Alison M Muir
- Department of Cell and Regenerative Biology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Dinesh C Joshi
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Chuan-Li Zhang
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Shing Yan Chiu
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Daniel S Greenspan
- Department of Cell and Regenerative Biology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI 53705, USA.
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12
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Carrara G, Parsons M, Saraiva N, Smith GL. Golgi anti-apoptotic protein: a tale of camels, calcium, channels and cancer. Open Biol 2018; 7:rsob.170045. [PMID: 28469007 PMCID: PMC5451544 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.170045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2017] [Accepted: 04/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Golgi anti-apoptotic protein (GAAP), also known as transmembrane Bax inhibitor-1 motif-containing 4 (TMBIM4) or Lifeguard 4 (Lfg4), shares remarkable amino acid conservation with orthologues throughout eukaryotes, prokaryotes and some orthopoxviruses, suggesting a highly conserved function. GAAPs regulate Ca2+ levels and fluxes from the Golgi and endoplasmic reticulum, confer resistance to a broad range of apoptotic stimuli, promote cell adhesion and migration via the activation of store-operated Ca2+ entry, are essential for the viability of human cells, and affect orthopoxvirus virulence. GAAPs are oligomeric, multi-transmembrane proteins that are resident in Golgi membranes and form cation-selective ion channels that may explain the multiple functions of these proteins. Residues contributing to the ion-conducting pore have been defined and provide the first clues about the mechanistic link between these very different functions of GAAP. Although GAAPs are naturally oligomeric, they can also function as monomers, a feature that distinguishes them from other virus-encoded ion channels that must oligomerize for function. This review summarizes the known functions of GAAPs and discusses their potential importance in disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guia Carrara
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QP, UK
| | - Maddy Parsons
- Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, King's College London, London SE1 1UL, UK
| | - Nuno Saraiva
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QP, UK .,CBIOS, Universidade Lusófona Research Centre for Biosciences and Health Technologies, Campo Grande 376, Lisbon 1749-024, Portugal
| | - Geoffrey L Smith
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QP, UK
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13
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Ivanusic D, Madela K, Denner J. Easy and low-cost stable positioning of suspension cells during live-cell imaging. J Biol Methods 2017; 4:e80. [PMID: 31453234 PMCID: PMC6706139 DOI: 10.14440/jbm.2017.203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2016] [Revised: 06/14/2017] [Accepted: 07/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Dynamic processes of cells can be best monitored when living cells are analyzed by imaging. While it is easy to observe adherent living cells it has been extremely challenging to analyze suspension cells. This cell type floats freely in the culture dish, and it is only a question of time when the focus or the observation field is lost. In order to keep the cells in focus, an easy and inexpensive method allowing the observation of living suspension cells during confocal laser scanning microscope imaging was developed.
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14
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Wu L, Xie J, Li T, Mai Z, Wang L, Wang X, Chen T. Gene delivery ability of polyethylenimine and polyethylene glycol dual-functionalized nanographene oxide in 11 different cell lines. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2017; 4:170822. [PMID: 29134085 PMCID: PMC5666268 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.170822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2017] [Accepted: 09/22/2017] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
We recently developed a polyethylenimine (PEI) and polyethylene glycol (PEG) dual-functionalized reduced graphene oxide (GO) (PEG-nrGO-PEI, RGPP) for high-efficient gene delivery in HepG2 and Hela cell lines. To evaluate the feasibility and applicability of RGPP as a gene delivery carrier, we here assessed the transfection efficiency of RGPP on gene plasmids and siRNA in 11 different cell lines. Commercial polyalkyleneimine cation transfection reagent (TR) was used as comparison. In HepG2 cells, RGPP exhibited much stronger delivery ability for siRNA and large size plasmids than TR. For green fluorescent protein (GFP) plasmid, RGPP showed about 47.1% of transfection efficiency in primary rabbit articular chondrocytes, and about 27% of transfection efficiency in both SH-SY5Y and A549 cell lines. RGPP exhibited about 37.2% of GFP plasmid transfection efficiency in EMT6 cells and about 26.0% of GFP plasmid transfection efficiency in LO2 cells, but induced about 33% of cytotoxicity in both cell lines. In 4T1 and H9C2 cell lines, RGPP had less than 10% of GFP plasmid transfection efficiency. Collectively, RGPP is a potential nano-carrier for high-efficiency gene delivery, and needs to be further optimized for different cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liping Wu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinshan Xie
- MOE Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
- Department of Pain Management, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Tan Li
- MOE Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Zihao Mai
- MOE Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Lu Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoping Wang
- Department of Pain Management, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Tongsheng Chen
- MOE Key Laboratory of Laser Life Science, College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
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Antigenic and immunosuppressive properties of a trimeric recombinant transmembrane envelope protein gp41 of HIV-1. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0173454. [PMID: 28282446 PMCID: PMC5345815 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0173454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2016] [Accepted: 02/22/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The transmembrane envelope (TM) protein gp41 of the human immunodeficiency virus—1 (HIV-1) plays an important role during virus infection inducing the fusion of the viral and cellular membranes. In addition, there are indications that the TM protein plays a role in the immunopathogenesis leading to the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Inactivated virus particles and recombinant gp41 have been reported to inhibit lymphocyte proliferation, as well as to alter cytokine release and gene expression. The same was shown for a peptide corresponding to a highly conserved domain of all retroviral TM proteins, the immunosuppressive domain. Due to its propensity to aggregate and to be expressed at low levels, studies comprising authentic gp41 produced in eukaryotic cells are extremely rare. Here we describe the production of a secreted, soluble recombinant gp41 in 293 cells. The antigen was purified to homogeneity and characterised thoroughly by various biochemical and immunological methods. It was shown that the protein was glycosylated and assembled into trimers. Binding studies by ELISA and surface plasmon resonance using conformation-specific monoclonal antibodies implied a six-helix bundle conformation. The low binding of broadly neutralising antibodies (bnAb) directed against the membrane proximal external region (MPER) suggested that this gp41 is probably not suited as vaccine to induce such bnAb. Purified gp41 bound to monocytes and to a lesser extent to lymphocytes and triggered the production of specific cytokines when added to normal peripheral blood mononuclear cells. In addition, gp41 expressed on target cells inhibited the antigen-specific response of murine CD8+ T cells by drastically impairing their IFNγ production. To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive analysis of a gp41 produced in eukaryotic cells including its immunosuppressive properties. Our data provide another line of evidence that gp41 might be directly involved in HIV-1 immunopathogenesis through modulation of the cytokine release and active inhibition of immune responses.
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Ivanusic D, Denner J, Bannert N. Correlative Förster Resonance Electron Transfer-Proximity Ligation Assay (FRET-PLA) Technique for Studying Interactions Involving Membrane Proteins. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 85:29.17.1-29.17.13. [PMID: 27479505 DOI: 10.1002/cpps.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
This unit provides a guide and detailed protocol for studying membrane protein-protein interactions (PPI) using the acceptor-sensitized Förster resonance electron transfer (FRET) method in combination with the proximity ligation assay (PLA). The protocol in this unit is focused on the preparation of FRET-PLA samples and the detection of correlative FRET/PLA signals as well as on the analysis of FRET-PLA data and interpretation of correlative results when using cyan fluorescent protein (CFP) as a FRET donor and yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) as a FRET acceptor. The correlative application of FRET and PLA combines two powerful tools for monitoring PPI, yielding results that are more reliable than with either technique alone. © 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Ivanusic
- Robert Koch Institute, HIV and Other Retroviruses, Berlin, Germany
| | - Joachim Denner
- Robert Koch Institute, HIV and Other Retroviruses, Berlin, Germany
| | - Norbert Bannert
- Robert Koch Institute, HIV and Other Retroviruses, Berlin, Germany
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Screening and identification of proteins interacting with IL-24 by the yeast two-hybrid screen, Co-IP, and FRET assays. Anticancer Drugs 2016; 27:318-27. [PMID: 26930462 DOI: 10.1097/cad.0000000000000343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-24 (IL-24) is an ideal tumor-suppressor gene, but the mechanisms underlying its antitumor specificity remain to be elucidated. The best way to investigate these problems is to begin from the initiation of corresponding signaling cascades activated by IL-24 with screening and identifying those proteins that interacted with IL-24. With the aim of identifying these initial interactions, a yeast two-hybrid screening was performed by transforming AH109 cells containing PGBKT7-IL-24 with a liver cDNA plasmid library. These cells were then plated on synthetic nutrient medium (SD/-Trp/-Leu/-His) for the first screening and on quadruple dropout medium containing X-α-gal for the second screening. Positive colonies were further verified by repeating the MATE experiments, co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP) analysis, and fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) assays in vitro. Following the yeast two-hybrid screening, 15 genes were selected for sequencing, with two genes, HLA-C and NDUFA13, further verified using Co-IP assays and FRET assays. Both HLA-C and NDUFA13 were found to interact with IL-24. We found that HLA-C and NDUFA13 could interact with IL-24 and it may be involved in the signal induced by IL-24. Overall, this study contributes further insight into the cancer-specific apoptosis-inducing abilities of IL-24 to potentially enhance its therapeutic potential, and it also provides outlets for other biological functions of IL-24.
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Mannic T, Satta N, Pagano S, Python M, Virzi J, Montecucco F, Frias MA, James RW, Maturana AD, Rossier MF, Vuilleumier N. CD14 as a Mediator of the Mineralocorticoid Receptor-Dependent Anti-apolipoprotein A-1 IgG Chronotropic Effect on Cardiomyocytes. Endocrinology 2015; 156:4707-19. [PMID: 26393305 DOI: 10.1210/en.2015-1605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In vitro and animal studies point to autoantibodies against apolipoprotein A-1 (anti-apoA-1 IgG) as possible mediators of cardiovascular (CV) disease involving several mechanisms such as basal heart rate interference mediated by a mineralocorticoid receptor-dependent L-type calcium channel activation, and a direct pro-inflammatory effect through the engagement of the toll-like receptor (TLR) 2/CD14 complex. Nevertheless, the possible implication of these receptors in the pro-arrhythmogenic effect of anti-apoA-1 antibodies remains elusive. We aimed at determining whether CD14 and TLRs could mediate the anti-apoA-1 IgG chronotropic response in neonatal rat ventricular cardiomyocytes (NRVC). Blocking CD14 suppressed anti-apoA-1 IgG binding to NRVC and the related positive chronotropic response. Anti-apoA-1 IgG alone induced the formation of a TLR2/TLR4/CD14 complex, followed by the phosphorylation of Src, whereas aldosterone alone promoted the phosphorylation of Akt by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), without affecting the chronotropic response. In the presence of both aldosterone and anti-apoA-1 IgG, the localization of TLR2/TLR4/CD14 was increased in membrane lipid rafts, followed by PI3K and Src activation, leading to an L-type calcium channel-dependent positive chronotropic response. Pharmacological inhibition of the Src pathway led to the decrease of L-type calcium channel activity and abrogated the NRVC chronotropic response. Activation of CD14 seems to be a key regulator of the mineralocorticoid receptor-dependent anti-apoA-1 IgG positive chronotropic effect on NRVCs, involving relocation of the CD14/TLR2/TLR4 complex into lipid rafts followed by PI3K and Src-dependent L-type calcium channel activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiphaine Mannic
- Human Protein Sciences Department, Chemistry and Proteomic Group, Auto-immunity and Atherogenesis group; and Division of Laboratory Medicine, Department of Genetics and Laboratory Medicine (T.M., N.S., J.V., F.M., N.V., M.F.R.), Geneva University Hospitals, 1201 Geneva, Switzerland; Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Hypertension and Nutrition (M.P., M.A.F., R.W.J.), Geneva University Hospitals, Switzerland; Department of Bioengineering Sciences (A.D.M.), Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Nagoya University, Japan; and Central Institute of the Hospital of Valais (M.F.R.), 1951 Sion, Switzerland
| | - Nathalie Satta
- Human Protein Sciences Department, Chemistry and Proteomic Group, Auto-immunity and Atherogenesis group; and Division of Laboratory Medicine, Department of Genetics and Laboratory Medicine (T.M., N.S., J.V., F.M., N.V., M.F.R.), Geneva University Hospitals, 1201 Geneva, Switzerland; Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Hypertension and Nutrition (M.P., M.A.F., R.W.J.), Geneva University Hospitals, Switzerland; Department of Bioengineering Sciences (A.D.M.), Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Nagoya University, Japan; and Central Institute of the Hospital of Valais (M.F.R.), 1951 Sion, Switzerland
| | - Sabrina Pagano
- Human Protein Sciences Department, Chemistry and Proteomic Group, Auto-immunity and Atherogenesis group; and Division of Laboratory Medicine, Department of Genetics and Laboratory Medicine (T.M., N.S., J.V., F.M., N.V., M.F.R.), Geneva University Hospitals, 1201 Geneva, Switzerland; Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Hypertension and Nutrition (M.P., M.A.F., R.W.J.), Geneva University Hospitals, Switzerland; Department of Bioengineering Sciences (A.D.M.), Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Nagoya University, Japan; and Central Institute of the Hospital of Valais (M.F.R.), 1951 Sion, Switzerland
| | - Magaly Python
- Human Protein Sciences Department, Chemistry and Proteomic Group, Auto-immunity and Atherogenesis group; and Division of Laboratory Medicine, Department of Genetics and Laboratory Medicine (T.M., N.S., J.V., F.M., N.V., M.F.R.), Geneva University Hospitals, 1201 Geneva, Switzerland; Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Hypertension and Nutrition (M.P., M.A.F., R.W.J.), Geneva University Hospitals, Switzerland; Department of Bioengineering Sciences (A.D.M.), Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Nagoya University, Japan; and Central Institute of the Hospital of Valais (M.F.R.), 1951 Sion, Switzerland
| | - Julien Virzi
- Human Protein Sciences Department, Chemistry and Proteomic Group, Auto-immunity and Atherogenesis group; and Division of Laboratory Medicine, Department of Genetics and Laboratory Medicine (T.M., N.S., J.V., F.M., N.V., M.F.R.), Geneva University Hospitals, 1201 Geneva, Switzerland; Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Hypertension and Nutrition (M.P., M.A.F., R.W.J.), Geneva University Hospitals, Switzerland; Department of Bioengineering Sciences (A.D.M.), Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Nagoya University, Japan; and Central Institute of the Hospital of Valais (M.F.R.), 1951 Sion, Switzerland
| | - Fabrizio Montecucco
- Human Protein Sciences Department, Chemistry and Proteomic Group, Auto-immunity and Atherogenesis group; and Division of Laboratory Medicine, Department of Genetics and Laboratory Medicine (T.M., N.S., J.V., F.M., N.V., M.F.R.), Geneva University Hospitals, 1201 Geneva, Switzerland; Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Hypertension and Nutrition (M.P., M.A.F., R.W.J.), Geneva University Hospitals, Switzerland; Department of Bioengineering Sciences (A.D.M.), Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Nagoya University, Japan; and Central Institute of the Hospital of Valais (M.F.R.), 1951 Sion, Switzerland
| | - Miguel A Frias
- Human Protein Sciences Department, Chemistry and Proteomic Group, Auto-immunity and Atherogenesis group; and Division of Laboratory Medicine, Department of Genetics and Laboratory Medicine (T.M., N.S., J.V., F.M., N.V., M.F.R.), Geneva University Hospitals, 1201 Geneva, Switzerland; Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Hypertension and Nutrition (M.P., M.A.F., R.W.J.), Geneva University Hospitals, Switzerland; Department of Bioengineering Sciences (A.D.M.), Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Nagoya University, Japan; and Central Institute of the Hospital of Valais (M.F.R.), 1951 Sion, Switzerland
| | - Richard W James
- Human Protein Sciences Department, Chemistry and Proteomic Group, Auto-immunity and Atherogenesis group; and Division of Laboratory Medicine, Department of Genetics and Laboratory Medicine (T.M., N.S., J.V., F.M., N.V., M.F.R.), Geneva University Hospitals, 1201 Geneva, Switzerland; Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Hypertension and Nutrition (M.P., M.A.F., R.W.J.), Geneva University Hospitals, Switzerland; Department of Bioengineering Sciences (A.D.M.), Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Nagoya University, Japan; and Central Institute of the Hospital of Valais (M.F.R.), 1951 Sion, Switzerland
| | - Andres D Maturana
- Human Protein Sciences Department, Chemistry and Proteomic Group, Auto-immunity and Atherogenesis group; and Division of Laboratory Medicine, Department of Genetics and Laboratory Medicine (T.M., N.S., J.V., F.M., N.V., M.F.R.), Geneva University Hospitals, 1201 Geneva, Switzerland; Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Hypertension and Nutrition (M.P., M.A.F., R.W.J.), Geneva University Hospitals, Switzerland; Department of Bioengineering Sciences (A.D.M.), Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Nagoya University, Japan; and Central Institute of the Hospital of Valais (M.F.R.), 1951 Sion, Switzerland
| | - Michel F Rossier
- Human Protein Sciences Department, Chemistry and Proteomic Group, Auto-immunity and Atherogenesis group; and Division of Laboratory Medicine, Department of Genetics and Laboratory Medicine (T.M., N.S., J.V., F.M., N.V., M.F.R.), Geneva University Hospitals, 1201 Geneva, Switzerland; Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Hypertension and Nutrition (M.P., M.A.F., R.W.J.), Geneva University Hospitals, Switzerland; Department of Bioengineering Sciences (A.D.M.), Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Nagoya University, Japan; and Central Institute of the Hospital of Valais (M.F.R.), 1951 Sion, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas Vuilleumier
- Human Protein Sciences Department, Chemistry and Proteomic Group, Auto-immunity and Atherogenesis group; and Division of Laboratory Medicine, Department of Genetics and Laboratory Medicine (T.M., N.S., J.V., F.M., N.V., M.F.R.), Geneva University Hospitals, 1201 Geneva, Switzerland; Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetology, Hypertension and Nutrition (M.P., M.A.F., R.W.J.), Geneva University Hospitals, Switzerland; Department of Bioengineering Sciences (A.D.M.), Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Nagoya University, Japan; and Central Institute of the Hospital of Valais (M.F.R.), 1951 Sion, Switzerland
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Improved split-ubiquitin screening technique to identify surface membrane protein-protein interactions. Biotechniques 2015; 59:63-73. [PMID: 26260084 DOI: 10.2144/000114315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2014] [Accepted: 06/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Yeast-based methods are still the workhorse for the detection of protein-protein interactions (PPIs) in vivo. Yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) systems, however, are limited to screening for a specific group of molecules that interact in a particular cell compartment. For this reason, the split-ubiquitin system (SUS) was developed to allow screening of cDNA libraries of full-length membrane proteins for protein-protein interactions in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Here we demonstrate that a modification of the widely used membrane SUS involving the transmembrane (TM) domain of the yeast receptor Wsc1 increases the stringency of screening and improves the selectivity for proteins localized in the plasma membrane (PM).
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Ivanusic D, Madela K, Laue M, Denner J. Three-Dimensional Imaging of CD63 Recruitment at the Virological Synapse: HIV-1. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2015; 31:579-80. [PMID: 25870000 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2014.0252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Ivanusic
- HIV and Other Retroviruses, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
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