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Zhong Q, Li D, Yang XP. Progress in antitumor mechanisms and applications of phenformin (Review). Oncol Rep 2024; 52:151. [PMID: 39301645 PMCID: PMC11421015 DOI: 10.3892/or.2024.8810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2024] [Accepted: 09/03/2024] [Indexed: 09/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Phenformin, a biguanide compound, has attracted increased attention due to its prominent antitumor activity. As a multi‑target agent, the antitumor effects of phenformin involve a wide range of factors, including inhibition of mitochondrial complex I, activation of AMP‑activated protein kinase, impact on the tumor microenvironment, suppression of cancer stem cells and others. In addition, phenformin has been shown to markedly augment the effectiveness of various clinical treatment methods, including radiotherapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy and immunotherapy. It is noteworthy that breakthrough progress has been made in the treatment of cancer with phenformin with application in clinical trials for the treatment of melanoma. Phenformin not only reduces the lesion area of patients, but also enhances the efficacy of dalafinib/trimetinib. In the present review, the novel breakthroughs in the antitumor effects and mechanisms of phenformin were discussed. In addition, the current review focuses on the clinical development value of phenformin, striving to provide new insights into the future research direction of phenformin in the field of tumor treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Zhong
- Key Laboratory of Study and Discovery of Small Targeted Molecules of Hunan, Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, Hunan 410013, P.R. China
| | - Duo Li
- Key Laboratory of Study and Discovery of Small Targeted Molecules of Hunan, Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, Hunan 410013, P.R. China
| | - Xiao-Ping Yang
- Key Laboratory of Study and Discovery of Small Targeted Molecules of Hunan, Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, Hunan 410013, P.R. China
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Luo S, Weng C, Qin Z, Li K, Zhao T, Ding Y, Ling C, Ma Y, An J. Tandem H/D Exchange-SET Reductive Deuteration Strategy for the Synthesis of α,β-Deuterated Amines Using D 2O. J Org Chem 2021; 86:11862-11870. [PMID: 34414760 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.1c01276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
α,β-Deuterated amines are crucial for the development of deuterated drugs. We intend to introduce the novel tandem H/D exchange-single electron transfer (SET) reductive deuteration strategy with high pot- and reagent-economy by the synthesis of α,β-deuterated amine using nitrile as the precursor. The H/D exchange of the -CH2CN group was achieved by D2O/Et3N, which were also the required reagents in the tandem SmI2-mediated SET reductive deuteration of the α-deuterated nitrile. The potential application of this method was further showcased by the synthesis of bevantolol-d4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shihui Luo
- Department of Chemistry and Innovation Center of Pesticide Research, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Chaoqun Weng
- Department of Nutrition and Health, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Zixuan Qin
- Department of Chemistry and Innovation Center of Pesticide Research, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Ke Li
- Department of Chemistry and Innovation Center of Pesticide Research, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Tianxiao Zhao
- Department of Chemistry and Innovation Center of Pesticide Research, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yuxuan Ding
- Department of Nutrition and Health, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Chen Ling
- Department of Nutrition and Health, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yuan Ma
- Department of Nutrition and Health, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Jie An
- Department of Nutrition and Health, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
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Phenylethynylbenzyl-modified biguanides inhibit pancreatic cancer tumor growth. Sci Rep 2021; 11:9854. [PMID: 33972583 PMCID: PMC8110578 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-87993-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
We present the design and synthesis of a small library of substituted biguanidium salts and their capacity to inhibit the growth of pancreatic cancer cells. We first present their in vitro and membrane activity, before we address their mechanism of action in living cells and in vivo activity. We show that phenylethynyl biguanidium salts possess higher ability to cross hydrophobic barriers, improve mitochondrial accumulation and anticancer activity. Mechanistically, the most active compound, 1b, like metformin, activated AMPK, decreased the NAD+/NADH ratio and mitochondrial respiration, but at 800-fold lower concentration. In vivo studies show that compound 1b significantly inhibits the growth of pancreatic cancer xenografts in mice, while biguanides currently in clinical trials had little activity.
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Sakai T, Matsuo Y, Okuda K, Hirota K, Tsuji M, Hirayama T, Nagasawa H. Development of antitumor biguanides targeting energy metabolism and stress responses in the tumor microenvironment. Sci Rep 2021; 11:4852. [PMID: 33649449 PMCID: PMC7921556 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-83708-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
To develop antitumor drugs capable of targeting energy metabolism in the tumor microenvironment, we produced a series of potent new biguanide derivatives via structural modification of the arylbiguanide scaffold. We then conducted biological screening using hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)-1- and unfolded protein response (UPR)-dependent reporter assays and selective cytotoxicity assay under low glucose conditions. Homologation studies of aryl-(CH2)n-biguanides (n = 0-6) yielded highly potent derivatives with an appropriate alkylene linker length (n = 5, 6). The o-chlorophenyl derivative 7l (n = 5) indicated the most potent inhibitory effects on HIF-1- and UPR-mediated transcriptional activation (IC50; 1.0 ± 0.1 μM, 7.5 ± 0.1 μM, respectively) and exhibited selective cytotoxicity toward HT29 cells under low glucose condition (IC50; 1.9 ± 0.1 μM). Additionally, the protein expression of HIF-1α induced by hypoxia and of GRP78 and GRP94 induced by glucose starvation was markedly suppressed by the biguanides, thereby inhibiting angiogenesis. Metabolic flux and fluorescence-activated cell sorting analyses of tumor cells revealed that the biguanides strongly inhibited oxidative phosphorylation and activated compensative glycolysis in the presence of glucose, whereas both were strongly suppressed in the absence of glucose, resulting in cellular energy depletion and apoptosis. These findings suggest that the pleiotropic effects of these biguanides may contribute to more selective and effective killing of cancer cells due to the suppression of various stress adaptation systems in the tumor microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takayuki Sakai
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Gifu Pharmaceutical University, Gifu-City, Gifu, 501-1196, Japan
| | - Yoshiyuki Matsuo
- Department of Human Stress Response Science, Institute of Biomedical Science, Kansai Medical University, 2-5-1 Shin-machi, Hirakata, Osaka, 573-1010, Japan
| | - Kensuke Okuda
- Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Products Chemistry, Kobe Pharmaceutical University, 4-19-1 Motoyama-kita, Higashinada, Kobe, 658-8558, Japan
| | - Kiichi Hirota
- Department of Human Stress Response Science, Institute of Biomedical Science, Kansai Medical University, 2-5-1 Shin-machi, Hirakata, Osaka, 573-1010, Japan
| | - Mieko Tsuji
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Gifu Pharmaceutical University, Gifu-City, Gifu, 501-1196, Japan
| | - Tasuku Hirayama
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Gifu Pharmaceutical University, Gifu-City, Gifu, 501-1196, Japan
| | - Hideko Nagasawa
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Gifu Pharmaceutical University, Gifu-City, Gifu, 501-1196, Japan.
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Zhou S, Xu L, Cao M, Wang Z, Xiao D, Xu S, Deng J, Hu X, He C, Tao T, Wang W, Guan A, Yang X. Anticancer properties of novel pyrazole‐containing biguanide derivatives with activating the adenosine monophosphate‐activated protein kinase signaling pathway. Arch Pharm (Weinheim) 2019; 352:e1900075. [DOI: 10.1002/ardp.201900075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2019] [Revised: 05/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Sichun Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Study and Discovery of Small Targeted Molecules of Hunan Province, Department of Pharmacy, School of MedicineHunan Normal University Changsha Hunan China
| | - Leichuan Xu
- State Key Laboratory of the Discovery and Development of Novel PesticideShenyang Sinochem Agrochemicals R&D Company Ltd. Shenyang China
| | - Mengru Cao
- TCM and Ethnomedicine Innovation & Development International Laboratory, Innovative Materia Medica Research Institute, School of PharmacyHunan University of Chinese Medicine Changsha China
| | - Zhiren Wang
- Key Laboratory of Study and Discovery of Small Targeted Molecules of Hunan Province, Department of Pharmacy, School of MedicineHunan Normal University Changsha Hunan China
| | - Di Xiao
- Key Laboratory of Study and Discovery of Small Targeted Molecules of Hunan Province, Department of Pharmacy, School of MedicineHunan Normal University Changsha Hunan China
| | - Simeng Xu
- Key Laboratory of Study and Discovery of Small Targeted Molecules of Hunan Province, Department of Pharmacy, School of MedicineHunan Normal University Changsha Hunan China
| | - Jun Deng
- Key Laboratory of Study and Discovery of Small Targeted Molecules of Hunan Province, Department of Pharmacy, School of MedicineHunan Normal University Changsha Hunan China
| | - Xin Hu
- Key Laboratory of Study and Discovery of Small Targeted Molecules of Hunan Province, Department of Pharmacy, School of MedicineHunan Normal University Changsha Hunan China
| | - Caimei He
- Key Laboratory of Study and Discovery of Small Targeted Molecules of Hunan Province, Department of Pharmacy, School of MedicineHunan Normal University Changsha Hunan China
| | - Ting Tao
- Department of PharmacyHunan Yueyang Maternal & Child Health‐Care Hospital Yueyang China
| | - Wei Wang
- TCM and Ethnomedicine Innovation & Development International Laboratory, Innovative Materia Medica Research Institute, School of PharmacyHunan University of Chinese Medicine Changsha China
| | - Aiying Guan
- State Key Laboratory of the Discovery and Development of Novel PesticideShenyang Sinochem Agrochemicals R&D Company Ltd. Shenyang China
| | - Xiaoping Yang
- Key Laboratory of Study and Discovery of Small Targeted Molecules of Hunan Province, Department of Pharmacy, School of MedicineHunan Normal University Changsha Hunan China
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The Oncojanus Paradigm of Respiratory Complex I. Genes (Basel) 2018; 9:genes9050243. [PMID: 29735924 PMCID: PMC5977183 DOI: 10.3390/genes9050243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2018] [Revised: 04/09/2018] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial respiratory function is now recognized as a pivotal player in all the aspects of cancer biology, from tumorigenesis to aggressiveness and chemotherapy resistance. Among the enzymes that compose the respiratory chain, by contributing to energy production, redox equilibrium and oxidative stress, complex I assumes a central role. Complex I defects may arise from mutations in mitochondrial or nuclear DNA, in both structural genes or assembly factors, from alteration of the expression levels of its subunits, or from drug exposure. Since cancer cells have a high-energy demand and require macromolecules for proliferation, it is not surprising that severe complex I defects, caused either by mutations or treatment with specific inhibitors, prevent tumor progression, while contributing to resistance to certain chemotherapeutic agents. On the other hand, enhanced oxidative stress due to mild complex I dysfunction drives an opposite phenotype, as it stimulates cancer cell proliferation and invasiveness. We here review the current knowledge on the contribution of respiratory complex I to cancer biology, highlighting the double-edged role of this metabolic enzyme in tumor progression, metastasis formation, and response to chemotherapy.
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Bridges HR, Sirviö VA, Agip ANA, Hirst J. Molecular features of biguanides required for targeting of mitochondrial respiratory complex I and activation of AMP-kinase. BMC Biol 2016; 14:65. [PMID: 27506389 PMCID: PMC4977651 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-016-0287-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2016] [Accepted: 07/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The biguanides are a family of drugs with diverse clinical applications. Metformin, a widely used anti-hyperglycemic biguanide, suppresses mitochondrial respiration by inhibiting respiratory complex I. Phenformin, a related anti-hyperglycemic biguanide, also inhibits respiration, but proguanil, which is widely used for the prevention of malaria, does not. The molecular structures of phenformin and proguanil are closely related and both inhibit isolated complex I. Proguanil does not inhibit respiration in cells and mitochondria because it is unable to access complex I. The molecular features that determine which biguanides accumulate in mitochondria, enabling them to inhibit complex I in vivo, are not known. Results Here, a family of seven biguanides are used to reveal the molecular features that determine why phenformin enters mitochondria and inhibits respiration whereas proguanil does not. All seven biguanides inhibit isolated complex I, but only four of them inhibit respiration in cells and mitochondria. Direct conjugation of a phenyl group and bis-substitution of the biguanide moiety prevent uptake into mitochondria, irrespective of the compound hydrophobicity. This high selectivity suggests that biguanide uptake into mitochondria is protein mediated, and is not by passive diffusion. Only those biguanides that enter mitochondria and inhibit complex I activate AMP kinase, strengthening links between complex I and the downstream effects of biguanide treatments. Conclusions Biguanides inhibit mitochondrial complex I, but specific molecular features control the uptake of substituted biguanides into mitochondria, so only some biguanides inhibit mitochondrial respiration in vivo. Biguanides with restricted intracellular access may be used to determine physiologically relevant targets of biguanide action, and for the rational design of substituted biguanides for diverse clinical applications. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12915-016-0287-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah R Bridges
- Medical Research Council Mitochondrial Biology Unit, Wellcome Trust / MRC Building, Hills Road, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Ville A Sirviö
- Medical Research Council Mitochondrial Biology Unit, Wellcome Trust / MRC Building, Hills Road, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Ahmed-Noor A Agip
- Medical Research Council Mitochondrial Biology Unit, Wellcome Trust / MRC Building, Hills Road, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK
| | - Judy Hirst
- Medical Research Council Mitochondrial Biology Unit, Wellcome Trust / MRC Building, Hills Road, Cambridge, CB2 0XY, UK.
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Elucidation of a novel phenformin derivative on glucose-deprived stress responses in HT-29 cells. Mol Cell Biochem 2016; 419:29-40. [PMID: 27392906 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-016-2747-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2016] [Accepted: 06/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Recently, we developed a variety of phenformin derivatives as selective antitumor agents. Based on previous findings, this study evaluated a promising compound, 2-(2-chlorophenyl)ethylbiguanide (2-Cl-Phen), on the basis of stress responses in the human colon cancer cell line HT-29 under a serum- and glucose-deprived condition. 2-Cl-Phen triggered morphological changes such as shrinkage and plasma membrane disintegration, as well as a decrease in mitochondrial activity and an increase in LDH leakage. To understand intracellular issues relating to 2-Cl-Phen, this study focused on the expression levels of ER stress-inducible genes and several oncogenic genes. Serum and glucose deprivation significantly induced a variety of ER stress-inducible genes, but a 12-h treatment of 2-Cl-Phen down-regulated expression of several ER stress-related genes, with the exception of GADD153. Interestingly, the expression levels of ATF6α, GRP78, MANF, and CRELD2 mRNA were almost completely decreased by 2-Cl-Phen. This study also observed that a 24-h treatment of 2-Cl-Phen attenuated the expression levels of GRP78, GADD153, and c-Myc protein. The decrease in c-Myc protein occurred before the fluctuation of GRP78 protein, while the expression of c-Myc mRNA showed little change with cotreatment of serum and glucose deprivation with 2-Cl-Phen. To further understand the 2-Cl-Phen-induced down-regulation of ATF6-related genes, this study investigated the stability of ATF6α and GRP78 proteins using NanoLuc-tagged constructs. The expression levels of NanoLuc-tagged ATF6α and GRP78 were significantly down-regulated by 2-Cl-Phen in the presence or absence of the translation inhibitor cycloheximide. Taken together, our novel phenformin derivative 2-Cl-Phen has the unique characteristic of diminishing tumor adaptive responses, especially the expression of ATF6-related genes, as well as that of c-Myc protein, in a transcriptional and posttranscriptional manner under a serum- and glucose-deprived condition. Further characterization of cytotoxic mechanisms related to phenformin derivatives may give new insights into developing additional promising anticancer agents.
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Di Y, Zhang Y, Yang H, Wang A, Chen X. The mechanism of CCN1-enhanced retinal neovascularization in oxygen-induced retinopathy through PI3K/Akt-VEGF signaling pathway. DRUG DESIGN DEVELOPMENT AND THERAPY 2015; 9:2463-73. [PMID: 25995618 PMCID: PMC4425238 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s79782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Background CCN1 (also called Cyr 61) is an extracellular matrix signaling molecule that has been implicated in neovascularization through its interactions with several endothelial integrin receptors. The roles of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in angiogenesis are well described. The aim of this study was to investigate the signal transduction mechanism of CCN1–PI3K/Akt–VEGF in retinopathy of prematurity (ROP), and the effects of CCN1 knockdown on ROP. Methods The oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR) model was established in C57BL/6J mice exposed to a high concentration of oxygen. Retinas were obtained from the normoxia, OIR, OIR control (treated with scramble siRNA) and OIR treated (with CCN1 siRNA) groups. Retinal neovascularization (RNV) was qualitatively analyzed with ADPase staining and quantitatively analyzed by counting neovascular endothelial cell nuclei at postnatal day 17 when RNV reached a peak. mRNA level and protein expression of CCN1, p-Akt, and VEGF were measured by real-time PCR and Western blotting, and located with immunohistochemistry. Results CCN1 depletion resulted in less neovascularization clock hour scores in the number of preretinal neovascular cells compared with the OIR treated group (1.28±0.83 versus 4.80±0.82; and 7.12±2.50 versus 23.25±2.35, respectively, both P<0.05). Furthermore, CCN1, p-Akt and VEGF mRNA, and protein were significantly expressed in the retina of the OIR and OIR control groups. Intravitreal injection of CCN1 siRNA significantly reduced PI3K/Akt–VEGF pathway expression of the OIR mouse model (all P<0.05). CCN1 siRNA significantly enhanced the avascular area and avascular diameter of OIR model (P<0.05). CCN1 siRNA decreased the levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α significantly compared to the OIR group (P<0.05). Conclusion These results suggest that CCN1 plays an important role in RNV via the PI3K/Akt–VEGF signaling pathway. CCN1 may be a potential target for the prevention and treatment of ROP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Di
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shengjing Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Yiou Zhang
- Graduate School, China Medical University, Shenyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongwei Yang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shengjing Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Aiyuan Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shengjing Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaolong Chen
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shengjing Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, People's Republic of China
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