Celastrol inhibits prostaglandin E2-induced proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of fibroblasts isolated from ankylosing spondylitis hip tissues in vitro

TRAIL and Celastrol Combinational Treatment Suppresses Proliferation, Migration, and Invasion of Human Glioblastoma Cells via Targeting Wnt/β-catenin Signaling Pathway

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the mechanistic basis for the anti-proliferation and anti-invasion effect of tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-induced ligand (TRAIL) and celastrol combination treatment (TCCT) in glioblastoma cells.

METHODS

Cell counting kit-8 was used to detect the effects of different concentrations of celastrol (0-16 µmol/L) and TRAIL (0-500 ng/mL) on the cell viability of glioblastoma cells. U87 cells were randomly divided into 4 groups, namely control, TRAIL (TRAIL 100 ng/mL), Cel (celastrol 0.5 µmol/L) and TCCT (TRAIL 100 ng/mL+ celastrol 0.5 µmol/L). Cell proliferation, migration, and invasion were detected by colony formation, wound healing, and Transwell assays, respectively. Quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and Western blotting were performed to assess the levels of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers (zona occludens, N-cadherin, vimentin, zinc finger E-box-binding homeobox, Slug, and β-catenin). Wnt pathway was activated by lithium chloride (LiCl, 20 mol/L) and the mechanism for action of TCCT was explored.

RESULTS

Celastrol and TRAIL synergistically inhibited the proliferation, migration, invasion, and EMT of U87 cells (P<0.01). TCCT up-regulated the expression of GSK-3β and down-regulated the expression of β-catenin and its associated proteins (P<0.05 or P<0.01), including c-Myc, Cyclin-D1, and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2. In addition, LiCl, an activator of the Wnt signaling pathway, restored the inhibitory effects of TCCT on the expression of β-catenin and its downstream genes, as well as the migration and invasion of glioblastoma cells (P<0.05 or P<0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Celastrol and TRAIL can synergistically suppress glioblastoma cell migration, invasion, and EMT, potentially through inhibition of Wnt/β-catenin pathway. This underlies a novel mechanism of action for TCCT as an effective therapy for glioblastoma.

Fibroblast Insights into the Pathogenesis of Ankylosing Spondylitis

Purpose of the Review

Emerging evidence has shown that ankylosing spondylitis fibroblasts (ASFs) act as crucial participants in inflammation and abnormal ossification in ankylosing spondylitis (AS). This review examines the investigations into ASFs and their pathological behavior, which contributes to inflammatory microenvironments and abnormal bone formation. The review spans the period from 2000 to 2023, with a primary focus on the most recent decade. Additionally, the review provides an in-depth discussion on studies on ASF ossification at the cellular level.

Recent Findings

ASFs organize immune functions by recruiting immune cells and influencing their differentiation and activation, thus mediate the inflammatory response in the early phase of disease. ASFs promote joint destruction at sites of cartilage and actively promote abnormal ossification by recruiting osteoblasts, differentiation into myofibroblasts or ossification directly. Many signaling pathways and cytokines such as Wnt signaling and BMP/TGF-β signaling are involved in ASF ossification.

Summary

ASFs play a key role in AS inflammation and osteogenesis. Further studies are required to elucidate molecular mechanisms behind that and provide new targets and directions for AS diagnosis and treatment from a new perspective of fibroblasts.

Exploring hub pyroptosis-related genes, molecular subtypes, and potential drugs in ankylosing spondylitis by comprehensive bioinformatics analysis and molecular docking

BACKGROUND

Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease, and the diagnosis and treatment of AS have been limited because its pathogenesis is still unclear. Pyroptosis is a proinflammatory type of cell death that plays an important role in the immune system. However, the relationship between pyroptosis genes and AS has never been elucidated.

METHODS

GSE73754, GSE25101, and GSE221786 datasets were collected from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. Differentially expressed pyroptosis-related genes (DE-PRGs) were identified by R software. Machine learning and PPI networks were used to screen key genes to construct a diagnostic model of AS. AS patients were clustered into different pyroptosis subtypes according to DE-PRGs using consensus cluster analysis and validated using principal component analysis (PCA). WGCNA was used for screening hub gene modules between two subtypes. Gene Ontology (GO) terms and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways were used for enrichment analysis to elucidate underlying mechanisms. The ESTIMATE and CIBERSORT algorithms were used to reveal immune signatures. The connectivity map (CMAP) database was used to predict potential drugs for the treatment of AS. Molecular docking was used to calculate the binding affinity between potential drugs and the hub gene.

RESULTS

Sixteen DE-PRGs were detected in AS compared to healthy controls, and some of these genes showed a significant correlation with immune cells such as neutrophils, CD8 + T cells, and resting NK cells. Enrichment analysis showed that DE-PRGs were mainly related to pyroptosis, IL-1β, and TNF signaling pathways. The key genes (TNF, NLRC4, and GZMB) screened by machine learning and the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network were used to establish the diagnostic model of AS. ROC analysis showed that the diagnostic model had good diagnostic properties in GSE73754 (AUC: 0.881), GSE25101 (AUC: 0.797), and GSE221786 (AUC: 0.713). Using 16 DE-PRGs, AS patients were divided into C1 and C2 subtypes, and these two subtypes showed significant differences in immune infiltration. A key gene module was identified from the two subtypes using WGCNA, and enrichment analysis suggested that the module was mainly related to immune function. Three potential drugs, including ascorbic acid, RO 90-7501, and celastrol, were selected based on CMAP analysis. Cytoscape showed GZMB as the highest-scoring hub gene. Finally, molecular docking results showed that GZMB and ascorbic acid formed three hydrogen bonds, including ARG-41, LYS-40, and HIS-57 (affinity: -5.3 kcal/mol). GZMB and RO-90-7501 formed one hydrogen bond, including CYS-136 (affinity: -8.8 kcal/mol). GZMB and celastrol formed three hydrogen bonds, including TYR-94, HIS-57, and LYS-40 (affinity: -9.4 kcal/mol).

CONCLUSIONS

Our research systematically analyzed the relationship between pyroptosis and AS. Pyroptosis may play an essential role in the immune microenvironment of AS. Our findings will contribute to a further understanding of the pathogenesis of AS.

MYC promotes fibroblast osteogenesis by regulating ALP and BMP2 to participate in ectopic ossification of ankylosing spondylitis

BACKGROUND

Ectopic ossification is an important cause of disability in patients with ankylosing spondylitis (AS). Whether fibroblasts can transdifferentiate into osteoblasts and contribute to ossification remains unknown. This study aims to investigate the role of stem cell transcription factors (POU5F1, SOX2, KLF4, MYC, etc.) of fibroblasts in ectopic ossification in patients with AS.

METHODS

Primary fibroblasts were isolated from the ligaments of patients with AS or osteoarthritis (OA). In an in vitro study, primary fibroblasts were cultured in osteogenic differentiation medium (ODM) to induce ossification. The level of mineralization was assessed by mineralization assay. The mRNA and protein levels of stem cell transcription factors were measured by real-time quantitative PCR (q-PCR) and western blotting. MYC was knocked down by infecting primary fibroblasts with lentivirus. The interactions between stem cell transcription factors and osteogenic genes were analysed by chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP). Recombinant human cytokines were added to the osteogenic model in vitro to evaluate their role in ossification.

RESULTS

We found that MYC was elevated significantly in the process of inducing primary fibroblasts to differentiate into osteoblasts. In addition, the level of MYC was remarkably higher in AS ligaments than in OA ligaments. When MYC was knocked down, the expression of the osteogenic genes alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and bone morphogenic protein 2 (BMP2) was decreased, and the level of mineralization was reduced significantly. In addition, the ALP and BMP2 were confirmed to be the direct target genes of MYC. Furthermore, interferon-γ (IFN-γ), which showed high expression in AS ligaments, was found to promote the expression of MYC in fibroblasts in the process of ossification in vitro.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates the role of MYC in ectopic ossification. MYC may act as the critical bridge that links inflammation with ossification in AS, thus providing new insights into the molecular mechanisms of ectopic ossification in AS.

Circ_0018168 inhibits the proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of fibroblasts in ankylosing spondylitis via regulating miR-330-3p/DKK1 axis

Background

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) play a crucial regulatory role in human diseases. However, the roles of circRNAs in ankylosing spondylitis (AS) are barely known. In this study, the functions of circ_0018168 in AS were investigated.

Methods

Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and western blot assay were used for circ_0018168, microRNA-330-3p (miR-330-3p), dickkopf-1 (DKK1), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), osteocalcin (OCN), Runt-related transcription factor 2 (Runx2) levels. Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay and 5′-ethynyl-2′-deoxyuridine (EdU) assay were conducted to analyze cell proliferation ability. Flow cytometry analysis was manipulated for cell cycle process. ALP activity was examined with a commercial kit. RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP) assay, RNA pull-down assay and dual-luciferase reporter assay were used to analyze the relationships of circ_0018168, miR-330-3p and DKK1.

Results

Circ_0018168 and DKK1 levels were lowly expressed in AS hip capsule specimens. Circ_0018168 overexpression repressed cell proliferation, cell cycle process as well as reduced ALP activity and ALP, OCN and Runx2 protein levels in AS fibroblasts. DKK1 silencing ameliorated the impact of circ_0018168 on AS progression. In addition, circ_0018168 served as the sponge for miR-330-3p, which could target DKK1. MiR-330-3p inhibition suppressed the proliferation, cell cycle and osteogenic differentiation in AS fibroblasts, but DKK1 silencing reversed the impacts. Besides, the effect of circ_0018168 on AS development was abolished by miR-330-3p upregulation.

Conclusion

Circ_0018168 overexpression restrained fibroblast proliferation and osteogenic differentiation in AS by elevating DKK1 through adsorbing miR-330-3p.

A mechanistic review of chinese medicine polyphenols on bone formation and resorption

Bone reconstruction includes a steady state system of bone formation and bone absorption. This tight coupling requires subtle coordination between osteoblasts and osteoclasts. If this balance is broken, it will lead to bone mass loss, bone density reduction, and bone metabolic diseases, such as osteoporosis. Polyphenols in Chinese herbal medicines are active ingredients in plant extracts with high safety and few side effects, and they can play a role in affecting bone formation and bone resorption. Some of these have estrogen-like effects and can better target bone health in postmenopausal women. The purpose of this review is to provide comprehensive information on the mechanisms underlying the relationship between traditional Chinese medicine polyphenols and bone formation or bone resorption.

Anti-Osteogenic Effect of Danshensu in Ankylosing Spondylitis: An in Vitro Study Based on Integrated Network Pharmacology

Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by abnormal bone metabolism, with few effective treatments available. Danshensu [3-(3,4-dihydroxy-phenyl) lactic acid) is a bioactive compound from traditional Chinese medicine with a variety of pharmacologic effects. In the present study, we investigated the pharmacologic effect and molecular mechanism of Danshensu in AS. Potential targets of Danshensu were identified in four drugs-genes databases; and potential pharmacologic target genes in AS were identified in three diseases-genes databases. Differentially expressed genes related to AS were obtained from the Gene Expression Omnibus database. Overlapping targets of Danshensu and AS were determined and a disease–active ingredient–target interaction network was constructed with Cytoscape software. Enrichment analyses of the common targets were performed using Bioconductor. To test the validity of the constructed network, an in vitro model was established by treating osteoblasts from newborn rats with low concentrations of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α. Then, the in vitro model and AS fibroblasts were treated with Danshensu (1–10 μM). Osteogenesis was evaluated by alkaline phosphatase staining and activity assay, alizarin red staining, quantitative PCR, and western blotting. We identified 2944 AS-related genes and 406 Danshensu targets, including 47 that were common to both datasets. The main signaling pathways associated with the targets were the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathways. A low concentration of TNF-α (0.01 ng/ml) promoted the differentiation of osteoblasts; this was inhibited by Danshensu, which had the same effect on AS fibroblasts but had the opposite effect on normal osteoblasts. Danshensu also decreased the phosphorylation of JNK and ERK in AS fibroblasts. There results provide evidence that Danshensu exerts an anti-osteogenic effect via suppression of JNK and ERK signaling, highlighting its therapeutic potential for the treatment of AS.

Micheliolide alleviates ankylosing spondylitis (AS) by suppressing the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome and maintaining the balance of Th1/Th2 via regulating the NF-κB signaling pathway

Background

Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a common form of inflammatory arthritis. Micheliolide (MCL), a sesquiterpene lactone, is reportedly involved in the alleviation of inflammatory response. This study aimed to investigate the mechanism of MCL in the treatment of AS.

Methods

Mice were randomly divided into five groups: the sham group, the MCL (50 mg/kg) group, the AS model group, the AS + MCL (20 mg/kg) group, and the AS + MCL (50 mg/kg) group. After the addition of the inhibitor celastrol, mice were randomly divided into five groups: the sham group, the AS model group, the AS + MCL (50 mg/kg) group, the AS + Celastrol (1 mg/kg) group, and the AS + Celastrol (1 mg/kg) + MCL (50 mg/kg) group.

Results

Compared with the AS model mice, the protein expression levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and IL-18 were decreased after MCL treatment. The protein expression levels of capase-1 p10, IL-1β p17, NOD-like receptor family and pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3), caspase-1, and apoptosis-associated speck-like protein (ASC) were also reduced. The protein expression levels of Interferon (IFN)-γ were down-regulated, but levels of IL-4 were increased. Western blotting and immunohistochemistry revealed that the levels of p-IκB α were up-regulated, while the levels of phosphorylated-p65 were down-regulated. After the addition of celastrol, MCL treatment significantly reduced the levels of p-p65, NLRP3, caspase-1, and ASC. Meanwhile, the levels of IFN-γ were markedly down-regulated, but the levels of IL-4 were enhanced.

Conclusions

Our study found that MCL suppressed the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome and maintained the balance of Th1/Th2 via regulating NF-κB signaling. Therefore, MCL could potentially be used to treat AS.

MicroRNA‑204‑5p inhibits the osteogenic differentiation of ankylosing spondylitis fibroblasts by regulating the Notch2 signaling pathway

Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory systemic disease and is difficult to detect in the early stages. The present study aimed to investigate the role of microRNA (miR)-204-5p in osteogenic differentiation of AS fibroblasts. Bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP-2) was used to induce osteogenic differentiation. Cells were divided into the following groups: AS group, AS + BMP-2 group, AS + BMP-2 + miR-negative control group, AS + BMP-2 + miR-204-5p mimics group and AS + BMP-2 + miR-204-5p mimics + pcDNA-Notch2 group. The expression levels of miR-204-5p, Notch2, runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) and osteocalcin were detected via reverse transcription-quantitative PCR analysis. The binding site between Notch2 and miR-204-5p was predicted using TargetScan software and verified via the dual-luciferase reporter assay. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity was assessed via the ALP assay, while the mineralized nodules area was determined via the Alizarin Red S staining assay. The results demonstrated that Notch2 is a target gene of miR-204-5p. Furthermore, treatment with BMP-2 significantly decreased miR-204-5p expression, and significantly increased ALP activity, the mineralized nodules area and the expression levels of Notch2, RUNX2 and osteocalcin in ligament fibroblasts (all P<0.05). Conversely, transfection with miR-204-5p mimics significantly increased miR-204-5p expression, and significantly decreased ALP activity, the mineralized nodules area and the expression levels of Notch2, RUNX2 and osteocalcin in ligament fibroblasts (all P<0.05). Notably, transfection with pcDNA-Notch2 significantly reversed the inhibitory effects induced by miR-204-5p mimics on the osteogenic differentiation of ligament fibroblasts (all P<0.05). Furthermore, miR-204-5p inhibited the osteogenic differentiation of ligament fibroblasts in patients with AS by targeting Notch2. Thus, miR-204-5p may negatively regulate Notch2 expression and may be a potential therapeutic target for AS. Collectively, the results of the present study provide a theoretical basis for the effective treatment of patients with AS.

miR-17-5p Regulates Heterotopic Ossification by Targeting ANKH in Ankylosing Spondylitis

Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized with heterotopic ossification of the axis joints ligaments, resulting in joint disability. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are regulators of mRNAs that play a crucial role in the AS pathological process. Here, we showed that the level of miR-17-5p was significantly higher in fibroblasts and ligament tissues from AS patients as compared to the non-AS individuals. Knockdown of the miR-17-5p from the fibroblasts derived from AS patients exhibited decreased osteogenic differentiation and ossification. On the other hand, AS patient-derived fibroblasts overexpressing miR-17-5p displayed the increased osteogenesis. Furthermore, inhibition of miR-17-5p ameliorated osteophyte formation, and the sacroiliitis phenotype in AS rats received emulsified collagen. Mechanistically, miR-17-5p regulated osteogenic differentiation by targeting the 3ʹ UTR of ankylosis protein homolog (ANKH). Also, downregulation of miR-17-5p slowed AS progression through regulation of cytokines, such as dickkopf-1 (DKK1) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). In conclusion, our findings reveal a role of the miR-17-5p-ANKH axis in the regulation of heterotopic ossification, which is essential for therapeutic intervention in heterotopic ossification in AS.

Prostaglandin receptor EP4 expression by Th17 cells is associated with high disease activity in ankylosing spondylitis

BACKGROUND

Th17 cells are involved in the pathogenesis of ankylosing spondylitis (AS). However, the mechanism underlying enhanced Th17 cell accumulation in AS remains unknown. The prostaglandin E₂ receptor EP2/EP4 signaling pathway plays a critical role in the development of autoimmune Th17 cells. Interestingly, recent genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified five risk alleles for AS in PTGER4, the gene encoding for EP4. The aim of this study was to reveal a possible link between EP4 and disease activity in patients with AS.

METHODS

Th17 cells from patients with AS were analyzed for the transcriptional expression of prostaglandin receptor genes by quantitative RT-PCR. Th17 cells from patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and from healthy individuals served as controls. EP4 receptor expression in Th17 cells was assessed ex vivo by flow cytometry and by western blot. Functional analysis using EP4-specific agonists was performed to reveal how EP4 regulates Th17 cells.

RESULTS

EP4 is significantly overexpressed in Th17 cells from patients with AS compared to Th17 cells from healthy individuals or patients with RA or psoriatic arthritis (PsA). EP4 upregulation is unique to Th17 cells and is not found in other CD4⁺ T cell subsets. Specific activation of EP4 drives Th17 cell development and promotes EP4 expression in a positive feedback loop in AS but not in RA or PsA. Mechanistically, EP4 acts via upregulation of the interleukin-23 receptor (IL-23R), by suppressing the RORγt inhibitor FoxO1 and by enhancing STAT3 phosphorylation. Increased EP4 expression levels in Th17 cells from AS patients correlate with high disease activity as defined by a Bath Ankylosing Spondylitis Disease Activity Index (BASDAI) score ≥ 4 (r = 0.7591, p = 0.0016).

CONCLUSIONS

EP4 is a potential marker of disease activity in patients with AS. Aberrant EP4 expression might contribute to pathogenic Th17 cell accumulation and represent a new target for the treatment of AS.

MiR-495 targeting dvl-2 represses the inflammatory response of ankylosing spondylitis

Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a type of rheumatic inflammatory disease. miRNAs participate in the process of regulating inflammatory response and bone differentiation. Herein, we aimed to test the effect of miR-495 on AS. The serum and tissues were obtained from traumatic fracture (health) and AS patients. The human fibroblast-like synovial (HFLS) cells were extracted from AS tissues. The contents of inflammatory factors and dishevelled 2 (DVL-2) were examined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The ossification factors were detected by immunohistochemistry assay. Osteoclast was assessed by tartaric acid acid phosphatase (TRAP) assay. The cell viability and luciferase activity were measured using cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) and dual-luciferase reporter system. The levels of factors were evaluated using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and western blotting. DVL-2 was a target gene for miR-495, according to the MicroRNA.org website and luciferase activity assay. The expressions of miR-495 and DVL-2 were negative corrected in AS. miR-495 and si-DVL-2 did not affect the cell viability. miR-495 and si-DVL-2 obviously inhibited inflammatory response by down-regulating tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-6 levels, and facilitated bone differentiation by up-regulating osteoprotegerin (OPG) and receptor activator for nuclear factor-κB ligand (RANKL) levels in HFLS cells. Besides, miR-495 and si-DVL-2 increased the expression of wnt3a, runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX-2) and β-catenin and reduced the phosphorylation of β-catenin. Collectively, miR-495 depressed inflammatory response and promoted bone differentiation of HFLS cells, and this was accompanied by mediating wnt/β-catenin/Runx-2 pathway by targeting DVL-2.

Clinical and MRI response to dose reduction of an etanercept-biosimilar for hip arthritis in patients with ankylosing spondylitis: an observational, retrospective cohort study

OBJECTIVES

Hip arthritis plays a critical role in the prognosis of ankylosing spondylitis (AS). Dose reduction of tumor necrosis factor inhibitors preserves general improvement of AS, so this study attempted to examine the equivalence between Yisaipu® tapering and conventional therapy for hip arthritis in AS patients, using clinical parameters and magnetic resonance image (MRI).

METHODS

AS patients received this etanercept-biosimilar injections (50 mg/week) in the first 12 weeks. Participants in the tapering group were treated with this reagent 50 mg every other week from week 13 to week 24, while the control group kept undergoing full-dose therapy. Clinical and laboratory parameters were assessed at baseline, week 12 and week 24. MRI examination of hip was performed at baseline and week 24.

RESULTS

One hundred and thirty-six patients were enrolled, and 80 of them were in the tapering group. Linear mixed model revealed that main effects of tapering group with control group as reference in disease activity parameters were insignificant (p > 0.05). Main effects of baseline with week 24 as reference were significant (p < 0.05), but main effects of week 12 with week 24 as reference were not (p > 0.05). Prevalence of acute inflammatory change in MRI significantly decreased in the tapering group (76.88% vs 20.00%, p < 0.05) and control group (76.79% vs 19.64%, p < 0.05). Influence of both treatments on acute inflammatory change was equivalent (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Efficacy of Yisaipu® tapering treatment is comparable to the full-dose therapy for hip arthritis in AS patients. Both treatments maintain remission of hip arthritis after patients achieved low disease activity.

Emodin induces apoptosis and autophagy of fibroblasts obtained from patient with ankylosing spondylitis

Background

Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a type of rheumatoid disease, which has been reported to be associated with the excessive proliferation of fibroblasts recently. Emodin, a single component from a traditional Chinese medicine Rheum palmatum, exerts anti-inflammation and antirheumatic arthritis activities. However, could emodin be used to treat AS remains unclear? Thus, this study aimed to investigate the effect of emodin on AS.

Methods

Fibroblasts obtained from patients with AS were used in the current study. In addition, multiple cellular and molecular biology techniques such as Cell Counting Kit-8, Western blotting, flow cytometry, monodansylcadaverine staining, and immunofluorescence assay were applied as well.

Results

Emodin-induced apoptosis of fibroblasts obtained from patient with AS via increasing active caspase-9, active caspase-3, and Bax levels and downregulating Bcl-2. Meanwhile, emodin enhanced autophagy in fibroblasts via upregulation of the expression of Atg12, Atg5, and Beclin 1, which was further confirmed by monodansylcadaverine staining. As expected, autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine (3MA) completely reversed emodin-induced autophagy in fibroblasts. Moreover, 3MA significantly increased emodin-induced apoptosis of fibroblasts obtained from patient with AS by increasing the levels of γH2AX, active caspase-9, active caspase-3, and cleaved poly ADP-ribose polymerase.

Conclusion

Our results indicated that emodin effectively induced apoptosis and autophagy of fibroblasts obtained from patient with AS. In addition, suppression of autophagy enhanced emodin-induced apoptosis in fibroblasts. Therefore, we proposed that combination of emodin with autophagy inhibitor might be a potent strategy for improving the symptoms of AS in the future.

Dissecting the Underlying Pharmaceutical Mechanism of Chinese Traditional Medicine Yun-Pi-Yi-Shen-Tong-Du-Tang Acting on Ankylosing Spondylitis through Systems Biology Approaches

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) has been served as complementary medicine for Ankylosing Spondylitis (AS) treatment for a long time. Yun-Pi-Yi-Shen-Tong-Du-Tang (Y-Y-T) is a novel empirical formula designed by Prof. Chengping Wen. In this study, a retrospective investigation supported efficacy of Y-Y-T and then we deciphered the underlying molecular mechanism of the efficacy. Herbal ingredients and targeting proteins were collected from TCMID. PPI networks were constructed to further infer the relationship among Y-Y-T, drugs used for treating AS, differentially expressed genes of AS patients and AS disease proteins. Finally, it was suggested that TLR signaling pathway and T cell receptor signaling pathway may involve in the biological processes of AS progression and contribute to the curative effect and proteins such as JAK2, STAT3, HSP90AA1, TNF and PTEN were the key targets. Our systemic investigation to infer therapeutic mechanism of Y-Y-T for AS treatment provides a new insight in understanding TCM pharmacology.

Celastrol: A Spectrum of Treatment Opportunities in Chronic Diseases

The identification of new bioactive compounds derived from medicinal plants with significant therapeutic properties has attracted considerable interest in recent years. Such is the case of the Tripterygium wilfordii (TW), an herb used in Chinese medicine. Clinical trials performed so far using its root extracts have shown impressive therapeutic properties but also revealed substantial gastrointestinal side effects. The most promising bioactive compound obtained from TW is celastrol. During the last decade, an increasing number of studies were published highlighting the medicinal usefulness of celastrol in diverse clinical areas. Here we systematically review the mechanism of action and the therapeutic properties of celastrol in inflammatory diseases, namely, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, inflammatory bowel diseases, osteoarthritis and allergy, as well as in cancer, neurodegenerative disorders and other diseases, such as diabetes, obesity, atherosclerosis, and hearing loss. We will also focus in the toxicological profile and limitations of celastrol formulation, namely, solubility, bioavailability, and dosage issues that still limit its further clinical application and usefulness.