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Theuretzbacher U, Blasco B, Duffey M, Piddock LJV. Unrealized targets in the discovery of antibiotics for Gram-negative bacterial infections. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2023; 22:957-975. [PMID: 37833553 DOI: 10.1038/s41573-023-00791-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023]
Abstract
Advances in areas that include genomics, systems biology, protein structure determination and artificial intelligence provide new opportunities for target-based antibacterial drug discovery. The selection of a 'good' new target for direct-acting antibacterial compounds is the first decision, for which multiple criteria must be explored, integrated and re-evaluated as drug discovery programmes progress. Criteria include essentiality of the target for bacterial survival, its conservation across different strains of the same species, bacterial species and growth conditions (which determines the spectrum of activity of a potential antibiotic) and the level of homology with human genes (which influences the potential for selective inhibition). Additionally, a bacterial target should have the potential to bind to drug-like molecules, and its subcellular location will govern the need for inhibitors to penetrate one or two bacterial membranes, which is a key challenge in targeting Gram-negative bacteria. The risk of the emergence of target-based drug resistance for drugs with single targets also requires consideration. This Review describes promising but as-yet-unrealized targets for antibacterial drugs against Gram-negative bacteria and examples of cognate inhibitors, and highlights lessons learned from past drug discovery programmes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Benjamin Blasco
- Global Antibiotic Research and Development Partnership (GARDP), Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Maëlle Duffey
- Global Antibiotic Research and Development Partnership (GARDP), Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Laura J V Piddock
- Global Antibiotic Research and Development Partnership (GARDP), Geneva, Switzerland.
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2
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Pérez Á, Quílez
del Moral JF, Galisteo A, Amaro JM, Barrero AF. Bioinspired Synthesis of Platensimycin from Natural ent-Kaurenoic Acids. Org Lett 2023; 25:5401-5405. [PMID: 37338151 PMCID: PMC10391625 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.3c01470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Abstract
The biomimetic formal synthesis of the antibiotic platensimycin for the treatment of infection by multidrug-resistant bacteria was accomplished starting from either ent-kaurenoic acid or grandiflorenic acid, each of which is a natural compound available in multigram scale from its natural source. Apart from the natural origin of the selected precursors, the keys of the described approach are the long-distance functionalization of ent-kaurenoic acid at C11 and the efficient protocol for the A-ring degradation of the diterpene framework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Álvaro Pérez
- Department
of Organic Chemistry, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
| | - José F. Quílez
del Moral
- Department
of Organic Chemistry, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Alberto Galisteo
- Department
of Organic Chemistry, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Juan M. Amaro
- Department
of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University
of Los Andes, Merida 5101, Venezuela
| | - Alejandro F. Barrero
- Department
of Organic Chemistry, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
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3
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Belete TM. Recent Progress in the Development of Novel Mycobacterium Cell Wall Inhibitor to Combat Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis. Microbiol Insights 2022; 15:11786361221099878. [PMID: 35645569 PMCID: PMC9131376 DOI: 10.1177/11786361221099878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite decades of research in drug development against TB, it is still the leading cause of death due to infectious diseases. The long treatment duration, patient noncompliance coupled with the ability of the tuberculosis bacilli to resist the current drugs increases multidrug-resistant tuberculosis that exacerbates the situation. Identification of novel drug targets is important for the advancement of drug development against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The development of an effective treatment course that could help us eradicates TB. Hence, we require drugs that could eliminate the bacteria and shorten the treatment duration. This review briefly describes the available data on the peptidoglycan component structural characterization, identification of the metabolic pathway, and the key enzymes involved in the peptidoglycan synthesis, like N-Acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate uridyltransferase, mur enzyme, alanine racemase as well as their inhibition. Besides, this paper also provides studies on mycolic acid and arabinogalactan synthesis and the transport mechanisms that show considerable promise as new targets to develop a new product with their inhibiter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tafere Mulaw Belete
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia
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4
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Wang YT, Shi TQ, Fu J, Zhu HL. Discovery of novel bacterial FabH inhibitors (Pyrazol-Benzimidazole amide derivatives): Design, synthesis, bioassay, molecular docking and crystal structure determination. Eur J Med Chem 2019; 171:209-220. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2019.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2018] [Revised: 03/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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5
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Kolbe K, Veleti SK, Johnson EE, Cho YW, Oh S, Barry CE. Role of Chemical Biology in Tuberculosis Drug Discovery and Diagnosis. ACS Infect Dis 2018; 4:458-466. [PMID: 29364647 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.7b00242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The use of chemical techniques to study biological systems (often referred to currently as chemical biology) has become a powerful tool for both drug discovery and the development of novel diagnostic strategies. In tuberculosis, such tools have been applied to identifying drug targets from hit compounds, matching high-throughput screening hits against large numbers of isolated protein targets and identifying classes of enzymes with important functions. Metabolites unique to mycobacteria have provided important starting points for the development of innovative tools. For example, the unique biology of trehalose has provided both novel diagnostic strategies as well as probes of in vivo biological processes that are difficult to study any other way. Other mycobacterial metabolites are potentially valuable starting points and have the potential to illuminate new aspects of mycobacterial pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Kolbe
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Sri Kumar Veleti
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Emma E. Johnson
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Young-Woo Cho
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Sangmi Oh
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Clifton E. Barry
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
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6
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Brill ZG, Condakes ML, Ting CP, Maimone TJ. Navigating the Chiral Pool in the Total Synthesis of Complex Terpene Natural Products. Chem Rev 2017; 117:11753-11795. [PMID: 28293944 PMCID: PMC5638449 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The pool of abundant chiral terpene building blocks (i.e., "chiral pool terpenes") has long served as a starting point for the chemical synthesis of complex natural products, including many terpenes themselves. As inexpensive and versatile starting materials, such compounds continue to influence modern synthetic chemistry. This review highlights 21st century terpene total syntheses which themselves use small, terpene-derived materials as building blocks. An outlook to the future of research in this area is highlighted as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary G. Brill
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720
| | - Matthew L. Condakes
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720
| | - Chi P. Ting
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720
| | - Thomas J. Maimone
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720
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7
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Falzone M, Crespo E, Jones K, Khan G, Korn VL, Patel A, Patel M, Patel K, Perkins C, Siddiqui S, Stenger D, Yu E, Gelber M, Scheffler R, Nayda V, Ravin A, Komal R, Rudolf JD, Shen B, Gullo V, Demain AL. Nutritional control of antibiotic production by Streptomyces platensis MA7327: importance of l-aspartic acid. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 2017; 70:828-831. [PMID: 28465627 DOI: 10.1038/ja.2017.49] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2016] [Revised: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 03/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Streptomyces platensis MA7327 is a bacterium producing interesting antibiotics, which act by the novel mechanism of inhibiting fatty acid biosynthesis. The antibiotics produced by this actinomycete are platensimycin and platencin plus some minor related antibiotics. Platensimycin and platencin have activity against antibiotic-resistant bacteria such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus; they also lack toxicity in animal models. Platensimycin also has activity against diabetes in a mouse model. We have been interested in studying the effects of primary metabolites on production of these antibiotics in our chemically defined production medium. In the present work, we tested 32 primary metabolites for their effect. They included 20 amino acids, 7 vitamins and 5 nucleic acid derivatives. Of these, only l-aspartic acid showed stimulation of antibiotic production. We conclude that the stimulatory effect of aspartic acid is due to its role as a precursor involved in the biosynthesis of aspartate-4-semialdehyde, which is the starting point for the biosynthesis of the 3-amino-2,4-dihydroxy benzoic acid portion of the platensimycin molecule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Falzone
- Research Institute of Scientists Emeriti (RISE), Charles A. Dana Research Institute, Drew University, Madison, NJ, USA
| | - Emmanuel Crespo
- Research Institute of Scientists Emeriti (RISE), Charles A. Dana Research Institute, Drew University, Madison, NJ, USA
| | - Klarissa Jones
- Research Institute of Scientists Emeriti (RISE), Charles A. Dana Research Institute, Drew University, Madison, NJ, USA
| | - Gulaba Khan
- Research Institute of Scientists Emeriti (RISE), Charles A. Dana Research Institute, Drew University, Madison, NJ, USA
| | - Victoria L Korn
- Research Institute of Scientists Emeriti (RISE), Charles A. Dana Research Institute, Drew University, Madison, NJ, USA
| | - Amreen Patel
- Research Institute of Scientists Emeriti (RISE), Charles A. Dana Research Institute, Drew University, Madison, NJ, USA
| | - Mira Patel
- Research Institute of Scientists Emeriti (RISE), Charles A. Dana Research Institute, Drew University, Madison, NJ, USA
| | - Krishnaben Patel
- Research Institute of Scientists Emeriti (RISE), Charles A. Dana Research Institute, Drew University, Madison, NJ, USA
| | - Carrie Perkins
- Research Institute of Scientists Emeriti (RISE), Charles A. Dana Research Institute, Drew University, Madison, NJ, USA
| | - Sana Siddiqui
- Research Institute of Scientists Emeriti (RISE), Charles A. Dana Research Institute, Drew University, Madison, NJ, USA
| | - Drew Stenger
- Research Institute of Scientists Emeriti (RISE), Charles A. Dana Research Institute, Drew University, Madison, NJ, USA
| | - Eileen Yu
- Research Institute of Scientists Emeriti (RISE), Charles A. Dana Research Institute, Drew University, Madison, NJ, USA
| | - Michael Gelber
- Research Institute of Scientists Emeriti (RISE), Charles A. Dana Research Institute, Drew University, Madison, NJ, USA
| | - Robert Scheffler
- Research Institute of Scientists Emeriti (RISE), Charles A. Dana Research Institute, Drew University, Madison, NJ, USA
| | - Vasyl Nayda
- Research Institute of Scientists Emeriti (RISE), Charles A. Dana Research Institute, Drew University, Madison, NJ, USA
| | - Ariela Ravin
- Research Institute of Scientists Emeriti (RISE), Charles A. Dana Research Institute, Drew University, Madison, NJ, USA
| | - Ronica Komal
- Research Institute of Scientists Emeriti (RISE), Charles A. Dana Research Institute, Drew University, Madison, NJ, USA
| | - Jeffrey D Rudolf
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USA
| | - Ben Shen
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USA
| | - Vincent Gullo
- Research Institute of Scientists Emeriti (RISE), Charles A. Dana Research Institute, Drew University, Madison, NJ, USA
| | - Arnold L Demain
- Research Institute of Scientists Emeriti (RISE), Charles A. Dana Research Institute, Drew University, Madison, NJ, USA
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8
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9
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Platensimycin and platencin: Inspirations for chemistry, biology, enzymology, and medicine. Biochem Pharmacol 2016; 133:139-151. [PMID: 27865713 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2016.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2016] [Accepted: 11/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Natural products have served as the main source of drugs and drug leads, and natural products produced by microorganisms are one of the most prevalent sources of clinical antibiotics. Their unparalleled structural and chemical diversities provide a basis to investigate fundamental biological processes while providing access to a tremendous amount of chemical space. There is a pressing need for novel antibiotics with new mode of actions to combat the growing challenge of multidrug resistant pathogens. This review begins with the pioneering discovery and biological activities of platensimycin (PTM) and platencin (PTN), two antibacterial natural products isolated from Streptomyces platensis. The elucidation of their unique biochemical mode of action, structure-activity relationships, and pharmacokinetics is presented to highlight key aspects of their biological activities. It then presents an overview of how microbial genomics has impacted the field of PTM and PTN and revealed paradigm-shifting discoveries in terpenoid biosynthesis, fatty acid metabolism, and antibiotic and antidiabetic therapies. It concludes with a discussion covering the future perspectives of PTM and PTN in regard to natural products discovery, bacterial diterpenoid biosynthesis, and the pharmaceutical promise of PTM and PTN as antibiotics and for the treatment of metabolic disorders. PTM and PTN have inspired new discoveries in chemistry, biology, enzymology, and medicine and will undoubtedly continue to do so.
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10
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Diederich AK, Duda KA, Romero-Saavedra F, Engel R, Holst O, Huebner J. Deletion of fabN in Enterococcus faecalis results in unsaturated fatty acid auxotrophy and decreased release of inflammatory cytokines. Innate Immun 2016; 22:284-93. [PMID: 27009913 DOI: 10.1177/1753425916639669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2015] [Accepted: 02/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The Gram-positive bacterium Enterococcus faecalis can cause life-threatening infections and is resistant to several commonly used antibiotics. The type II fatty acid pathway in bacteria is discussed as a potential target for antimicrobial therapy. However, it was shown that inhibition or deletion of its enzymes can be rescued in Gram-positive bacteria by supplementation with fatty acids. Here we show that by deletion of the fabN gene, which is essential for unsaturated fatty acid (UFA) synthesis in E. faecalis, growth is impaired but can be rescued by supplementation with oleic acid or human serum. Nonetheless, we demonstrate alterations of the UFA profile after supplementation with oleic acid in the ΔfabN mutant using a specific glycolipid. In addition, we demonstrate that cytokine release in vitro is almost abolished after stimulation of mouse macrophages by the mutant in comparison to the wild type. The results indicate that fabN is not a suitable target for antimicrobials as UFA auxotrophy can be overcome. However, deletion of fabN resulted in a decreased inflammatory response indicating that fabN and resulting UFA synthesis are relevant for virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann-Kristin Diederich
- Center for Infectious Disease and Travel Medicine, University Medical Center Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Dr. von Hauner Children's Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, Albert-Ludwigs-University, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Katarzyna A Duda
- Division of Structural Biochemistry, Research Center Borstel, Leibniz-Center for Medicine and Biosciences, Priority Area Asthma & Allergy, Research Center Borstel, Airway Research Center North (ARCN), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), D-23845 Borstel, Germany
| | - Felipe Romero-Saavedra
- Center for Infectious Disease and Travel Medicine, University Medical Center Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany 2EA4655 U2RM Stress/Virulence, University of Caen Lower-Normandy, Caen, France
| | - Regina Engel
- Division of Structural Biochemistry, Research Center Borstel, Leibniz-Center for Medicine and Biosciences, Priority Area Asthma & Allergy, Research Center Borstel, Airway Research Center North (ARCN), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), D-23845 Borstel, Germany
| | - Otto Holst
- Division of Structural Biochemistry, Research Center Borstel, Leibniz-Center for Medicine and Biosciences, Priority Area Asthma & Allergy, Research Center Borstel, Airway Research Center North (ARCN), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), D-23845 Borstel, Germany
| | - Johannes Huebner
- Center for Infectious Disease and Travel Medicine, University Medical Center Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Dr. von Hauner Children's Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
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11
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Yoshimitsu T. Radical Cyclization Strategies in Total Syntheses of Bioactive Fused Cyclic Natural Products. J SYN ORG CHEM JPN 2016. [DOI: 10.5059/yukigoseikyokaishi.74.350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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12
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FabH mutations confer resistance to FabF-directed antibiotics in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 59:849-58. [PMID: 25403676 DOI: 10.1128/aac.04179-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Delineating the mechanisms for genetically acquired antibiotic resistance is a robust approach to target validation and anticipates the evolution of clinical drug resistance. This study defines a spectrum of mutations in fabH that render Staphylococcus aureus resistant to multiple natural products known to inhibit the elongation condensing enzyme (FabF) of bacterial type II fatty acid synthesis. Twenty independently isolated clones resistant to platensimycin, platencin, or thiolactomycin were isolated. All mutants selected against one antibiotic were cross-resistant to the other two antibiotics. Mutations were not detected in fabF, but the resistant strains harbored missense mutations in fabH. The altered amino acids clustered in and around the FabH active-site tunnel. The mutant FabH proteins were catalytically compromised based on the low activities of the purified enzymes, a fatty acid-dependent growth phenotype, and elevated expression of the fabHF operon in the mutant strains. Independent manipulation of fabF and fabH expression levels showed that the FabH/FabF activity ratio was a major determinant of antibiotic sensitivity. Missense mutations that reduce FabH activity are sufficient to confer resistance to multiple antibiotics that bind to the FabF acyl-enzyme intermediate in S. aureus.
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Chang EL, Schwartz BD, Draffan AG, Banwell MG, Willis AC. A Chemoenzymatic and Fully Stereocontrolled Total Synthesis of the Antibacterial Natural Product (−)-Platencin. Chem Asian J 2014; 10:427-39. [DOI: 10.1002/asia.201403069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Moustafa GAI, Saku Y, Aoyama H, Yoshimitsu T. A new route to platencin via decarboxylative radical cyclization. Chem Commun (Camb) 2014; 50:15706-9. [PMID: 25361063 DOI: 10.1039/c4cc07316a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A new approach to platencin, a potent antibiotic isolated from Streptomyces platensis, has been established. The highly congested tricyclic core of the natural product was successfully constructed by decarboxylative radical cyclization of an alkynyl silyl ester with Pb(OAc)4 in the presence of pyridine in refluxing 1,4-dioxane. The key decarboxylation, which likely takes place via lead(IV) esterification followed by carbon-centered radical generation and subsequent capture of the radical with a triple bond, allows the rapid construction of the twisted polycyclic system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gamal A I Moustafa
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
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Fair RJ, Tor Y. Antibiotics and bacterial resistance in the 21st century. PERSPECTIVES IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 2014; 6:25-64. [PMID: 25232278 PMCID: PMC4159373 DOI: 10.4137/pmc.s14459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 841] [Impact Index Per Article: 84.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2014] [Revised: 06/24/2014] [Accepted: 06/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Dangerous, antibiotic resistant bacteria have been observed with increasing frequency over the past several decades. In this review the factors that have been linked to this phenomenon are addressed. Profiles of bacterial species that are deemed to be particularly concerning at the present time are illustrated. Factors including economic impact, intrinsic and acquired drug resistance, morbidity and mortality rates, and means of infection are taken into account. Synchronously with the waxing of bacterial resistance there has been waning antibiotic development. The approaches that scientists are employing in the pursuit of new antibacterial agents are briefly described. The standings of established antibiotic classes as well as potentially emerging classes are assessed with an emphasis on molecules that have been clinically approved or are in advanced stages of development. Historical perspectives, mechanisms of action and resistance, spectrum of activity, and preeminent members of each class are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Fair
- Department for Biomolecular Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Berlin, Germany
| | - Yitzhak Tor
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
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