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Wu HY, Huang CM, Hsu AL, Chen CN, Wu CW, Chen JH. Functional neuroplasticity of facilitation and interference effects on inhibitory control following 3-month physical exercise in aging. Sci Rep 2024; 14:3682. [PMID: 38355770 PMCID: PMC10866924 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-53974-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Preservation of executive function, like inhibition, closely links to the quality of life in senior adults. Although neuroimaging literature has shown enhanced inhibitory function followed by aerobic exercise, current evidence implies inconsistent neuroplasticity patterns along different time durations of exercise. Hence, we conducted a 12-week exercise intervention on 12 young and 14 senior volunteers and repeatedly measured the inhibitory functionality of distinct aspects (facilitation and interference effects) using the numerical Stroop task and functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Results showcased improved accuracy and reduced reaction times (RT) after 12-week exercise, attributed to frontoparietal and default mode network effects. In young adults, the first phase (0 to six weeks) exercise increased the activation of the right superior medial frontal gyrus, associated with reduced RT in interference, but in the second intervention phase (six to twelve weeks), the decreased activation of the left superior medial frontal gyrus positively correlated with reduced RT in facilitation. In senior adults, the first six-week intervention led to reduced activations of the inferior frontal gyrus, inferior parietal gyrus, and default mode network regions, associated with the reduced RT in interference. Still, in the second intervention phase, only the visual area exhibited increased activity, associated with reduced RT in interference. Except for the distinctive brain plasticity between the two phases of exercise intervention, the between-group comparison also presented that the old group gained more cognitive benefits within the first six weeks of exercise intervention; however, the cognitive improvements in the young group occurred after six weeks of intervention. Limited by the sample size, these preliminary findings corroborated the benefits of aerobic exercise on the inhibitory functions, implying an age × exercise interaction on the brain plasticity for both facilitation and interference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Yi Wu
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Electronics and Bioinformatics, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Mao Huang
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Ai-Ling Hsu
- Bachelor Program in Artificial Intelligence, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Department of Psychiatry, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Chiao-Nan Chen
- Department of Physical Therapy and Assistive Technology, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Changwei W Wu
- Graduate Institute of Mind, Brain and Consciousness, Taipei Medical University, New Taipei, Taiwan.
- Research Center of Sleep Medicine, Taipei Medical University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan.
| | - Jyh-Horng Chen
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Electronics and Bioinformatics, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
- Department of Electrical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
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de Zoete RMJ, McMahon KL, Coombes JS, Sterling M. The effects of physical exercise on structural, functional, and biochemical brain characteristics in individuals with chronic whiplash-associated disorder: A pilot randomized clinical trial. Pain Pract 2023; 23:759-775. [PMID: 37157897 DOI: 10.1111/papr.13240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Exercise for people with whiplash associated disorder (WAD) induces hypoalgesic effects in some, but hyperalgesic effects in others. We investigated the exercise-induced neurobiological effects of aerobic and strengthening exercise in individuals with chronic WAD. METHODS Sixteen participants (8 WAD, 8 pain-free [CON]) were randomised to either aerobic or strengthening exercise. MRI for brain morphometry, functional MRI for brain connectivity, and magnetic resonance spectroscopy for brain biochemistry, were used at baseline and after the 8-week intervention. RESULTS There were no differences in brain changes between exercise groups in either the WAD or CON group, therefore aerobic and strengthening data were combined to optimise sample size. After the exercise intervention, the CON group demonstrated increased cortical thickness (left parahippocampus: mean difference = 0.04, 95% CI = 0.07-0.00, p = 0.032; and left lateral orbital frontal cortex: mean difference = 0.03, 95% CI = 0.00-0.06, p = 0.048). The WAD group demonstrated an increase in prefrontal cortex (right medial orbital frontal) volume (mean difference = 95.57, 95% CI = 2.30-192.84, p = 0.046). Functional changes from baseline to follow-up between the default mode network and the insula, cingulate cortex, temporal lobe, and somatosensory and motor cortices, were found in the CON group, but not in the WAD group. There were no changes post-exercise in brain biochemistry. CONCLUSION Aerobic and strengthening exercises did not exert differential effects on brain characteristics, however differences in structural and functional changes were found between WAD and CON groups. This suggests that an altered central pain modulatory response may be responsible for differential effects of exercise in individuals with chronic WAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rutger M J de Zoete
- Recover Injury Research Centre, NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Recovery Following Road Traffic Injuries, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Allied Health Science and Practice, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Katie L McMahon
- Herston Imaging Research Facility, Royal Brisbane & Women's Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Centre for Biomedical Technologies, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jeff S Coombes
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Michele Sterling
- Recover Injury Research Centre, NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Recovery Following Road Traffic Injuries, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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de Zoete RMJ, Berryman CF, Nijs J, Walls A, Jenkinson M. Differential Structural Brain Changes Between Responders and Nonresponders After Physical Exercise Therapy for Chronic Nonspecific Neck Pain. Clin J Pain 2023; 39:270-277. [PMID: 37220328 DOI: 10.1097/ajp.0000000000001115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Physical exercise therapy is effective for some people with chronic nonspecific neck pain but not for others. Differences in exercise-induced pain-modulatory responses are likely driven by brain changes. We investigated structural brain differences at baseline and changes after an exercise intervention. The primary aim was to investigate changes in structural brain characteristics after physical exercise therapy for people with chronic nonspecific neck pain. The secondary aims were to investigate (1) baseline differences in structural brain characteristics between responders and nonresponders to exercise therapy, and (2) differential brain changes after exercise therapy between responders and nonresponders. MATERIALS AND METHODS This was a prospective longitudinal cohort study. Twenty-four participants (18 females, mean age 39.7 y) with chronic nonspecific neck pain were included. Responders were selected as those with ≥20% improvement in Neck Disability Index. Structural magnetic resonance imaging was obtained before and after an 8-week physical exercise intervention delivered by a physiotherapist. Freesurfer cluster-wise analyses were performed and supplemented with an analysis of pain-specific brain regions of interest. RESULTS Various changes in grey matter volume and thickness were found after the intervention, for example, frontal cortex volume decreased (cluster-weighted P value = 0.0002, 95% CI: 0.0000-0.0004). We found numerous differences between responders and nonresponders, most notably, after the exercise intervention bilateral insular volume decreased in responders, but increased in nonresponders (cluster-weighted P value ≤ 0.0002). DISCUSSION The brain changes found in this study may underpin clinically observed differential effects between responders and nonresponders to exercise therapy for people with chronic neck pain. Identification of these changes is an important step toward personalized treatment approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Carolyn F Berryman
- Brain Stimulation, Imaging and Cognition Group, School of Medicine
- IIMPACT in Health, The University of South Australia
| | - Jo Nijs
- Pain in Motion Research Group (PAIN), Department of Physiotherapy, Human Physiology and Anatomy, Vrije Universiteit Brussel
- Chronic pain rehabilitation, Department of Physical Medicine and Physiotherapy, University Hospital Brussels, Belgium
- Department of Health and Rehabilitation, Unit of Physiotherapy, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Angela Walls
- Clinical and Research Imaging Centre, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute
| | - Mark Jenkinson
- Australian Institute for Machine Learning (AIML), School of Computer Science, University of Adelaide
- South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute (SAHMRI), Adelaide, Australia
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, FMRIB, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, UK
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Palmer KL, Shivgulam ME, Champod AS, Wilson BC, O'Brien MW, Bray NW. Exercise training augments brain function and reduces pain perception in adults with chronic pain: A systematic review of intervention studies. NEUROBIOLOGY OF PAIN (CAMBRIDGE, MASS.) 2023; 13:100129. [PMID: 37206154 PMCID: PMC10189552 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynpai.2023.100129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Introduction Chronic pain (CP) is a leading cause of disability worldwide. Pain may be measured using subjective questionnaires, but understanding the underlying physiology, such as brain function, could improve prognosis. Further, there has been a shift towards cost-effective lifestyle modification for the management of CP. Methods We conducted a systematic review (Registration: #CRD42022331870) using articles retrieved from four databases (Pubmed, EMBASE, AMED, and CINAHL) to assess the effect of exercise on brain function and pain perception/quality of life in adults with CP. Results Our search yielded 1879 articles; after exclusion, ten were included in the final review. Study participants were diagnosed with either osteoarthritis or fibromyalgia. However, two studies included "fibromyalgia and low back pain" or "fibromyalgia, back, and complex regional pain." Exercise interventions that were 12 weeks or longer (n = 8/10) altered brain function and improved pain and/or quality of life outcomes. The cortico-limbic pathway, default-mode network, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex were key regions that experienced alterations post-intervention. All studies that reported an improvement in brain function also demonstrated an improvement in pain perception and/or quality of life. Discussion Our review suggests that alterations in brain function, notably the cortico-limbic, default-mode and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, may be responsible for the downstream improvements in the subjective experience of CP. Through appropriate programming (i.e., length of intervention), exercise may represent a viable option to manage CP via its positive influence on brain health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kierstyn L. Palmer
- School of Health and Exercise Sciences, University of British Columbia Okanagan, Kelowna, V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Madeline E. Shivgulam
- Division of Kinesiology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 3J5, Canada
| | - Anne Sophie Champod
- Dept. of Psychology, Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, B4P 2R6, Canada
| | - Brian C. Wilson
- Department of Biology, Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, B4P 2R6, Canada
| | - Myles W. O'Brien
- School of Physiotherapy (Faculty of Health) and Department of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 3J5, Canada
| | - Nick W. Bray
- Cumming School of Medicine, Dept. of Physiology & Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4N1, Canada
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 1N4, Canada
- Corresponding author at: Lab of Human Cerebrovascular Physiology, MR Neuroimaging Lab, Heritage Medical Research Building, Room HMRB 128, Calgary, AB N6C 0A7, Canada.
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Zheng K, Chen C, Yang S, Wang X. Aerobic Exercise Attenuates Pain Sensitivity: An Event-Related Potential Study. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:735470. [PMID: 34630022 PMCID: PMC8494006 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.735470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, electroencephalography (EEG) was utilized to explore the neurophysiological mechanisms of aerobic exercise-induced hypoalgesia (EIH) and provide a theoretical basis for the application of aerobic exercise in pain assessment and treatment. Forty-five healthy subjects were randomly divided into moderate-intensity aerobic exercise [70% heart rate reserve (HRR)], low-intensity aerobic exercise (50% HRR), or control groups (sitting). Aerobic exercise was performed with cycling. Pressure pain threshold (PPT), heat pain threshold (HPT), event-related potential (ERP) induced by contact heat stimulus and pain scoring were measured before and after the intervention. We found that moderate-intensity aerobic exercise can increase the PPT (rectus femoris: t = -2.71, p = 0.017; tibialis anterior muscle: t = -2.36, p = 0.033) and HPT (tibialis anterior muscle: t = -2.219, p = 0.044) of proximal intervention sites rather than distal sites, and decreased pain scorings of contact heat stimulus. After moderate-intensity aerobic exercise, alpha oscillation power reflecting the central descending inhibitory function was enhanced (t = -2.31, p < 0.05). Low-intensity aerobic exercise mainly reduced the pain unpleasantness rating (Block 1: t = 2.415, p = 0.030; Block 2: t = 3.287, p = 0.005; Block 4: t = 2.646, p = 0.019; Block 5: t = 2.567, p = 0.022). Aerobic exercise had an overall EIH effect. Its hypoalgesic effect was related to exercise intensity and affected by the site and type of pain stimulus. Moderate-intensity aerobic exercise effectively reduced the sensitivity to various painful stimuli, and low-intensity aerobic exercise selectively inhibited the negative emotional pain response. The hypoalgesic mechanism of aerobic exercise involves the enhancement of the central descending inhibitory function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kangyong Zheng
- Department of Sport Rehabilitation, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Changcheng Chen
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Qingtian People's Hospital, Zhejiang, China
| | - Suyong Yang
- School of Psychology, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Xueqiang Wang
- Department of Sport Rehabilitation, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China.,Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Shanghai Shangti Orthopaedic Hospital, Shanghai, China
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Kim D, Chae Y, Park HJ, Lee IS. Effects of Chronic Pain Treatment on Altered Functional and Metabolic Activities in the Brain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Functional Neuroimaging Studies. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:684926. [PMID: 34290582 PMCID: PMC8287208 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.684926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have identified altered brain changes in chronic pain patients, however, it remains unclear whether these changes are reversible. We summarized the neural and molecular changes in patients with chronic pain and employed a meta-analysis approach to quantify the changes. We included 75 studies and 11 of these 75 studies were included in the activation likelihood estimation (ALE) analysis. In the 62 functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies, the primary somatosensory and motor cortex (SI and MI), thalamus, insula, and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) showed significantly decreased activity after the treatments compared to baseline. In the 13 positron emission tomography (PET) studies, the SI, MI, thalamus, and insula showed significantly increased glucose uptake, blood flow, and opioid-receptor binding potentials after the treatments compared to baseline. A meta-analysis of fMRI studies in patients with chronic pain, during pain-related tasks, showed a significant deactivation likelihood cluster in the left medial posterior thalamus. Further studies are warranted to understand brain reorganization in patients with chronic pain compared to the normal state, in terms of its relationship with symptom reduction and baseline conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongwon Kim
- College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Younbyoung Chae
- College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea.,Acupuncture and Meridian Science Research Center, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hi-Joon Park
- College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea.,Acupuncture and Meridian Science Research Center, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - In-Seon Lee
- College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea.,Acupuncture and Meridian Science Research Center, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
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Exercise-induced hypoalgesia after acute and regular exercise: experimental and clinical manifestations and possible mechanisms in individuals with and without pain. Pain Rep 2020; 5:e823. [PMID: 33062901 PMCID: PMC7523781 DOI: 10.1097/pr9.0000000000000823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2019] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
This review describes methodology used in the assessment of the manifestations of exercise-induced hypoalgesia in humans and previous findings in individuals with and without pain. Possible mechanisms and future directions are discussed. Exercise and physical activity is recommended treatment for a wide range of chronic pain conditions. In addition to several well-documented effects on physical and mental health, 8 to 12 weeks of exercise therapy can induce clinically relevant reductions in pain. However, exercise can also induce hypoalgesia after as little as 1 session, which is commonly referred to as exercise-induced hypoalgesia (EIH). In this review, we give a brief introduction to the methodology used in the assessment of EIH in humans followed by an overview of the findings from previous experimental studies investigating the pain response after acute and regular exercise in pain-free individuals and in individuals with different chronic pain conditions. Finally, we discuss potential mechanisms underlying the change in pain after exercise in pain-free individuals and in individuals with different chronic pain conditions, and how this may have implications for clinical exercise prescription as well as for future studies on EIH.
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de Zoete RMJ, Chen K, Sterling M. Central neurobiological effects of physical exercise in individuals with chronic musculoskeletal pain: a systematic review. BMJ Open 2020; 10:e036151. [PMID: 32636282 PMCID: PMC7342432 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2019-036151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Primary objectives: to investigate the central neurobiological effects (using MRI) of physical exercise in individuals with chronic pain. Secondary objectives: (1) to investigate the associations between central changes and clinical outcomes and (2) to investigate whether different types and dosages of physical exercise exert different central changes. DESIGN Systematic review searching four electronic databases up to September 2018: AMED, CINAHL, Embase and MEDLINE. Two reviewers independently assessed the methodological quality of included studies using the Cochrane Collaboration's Risk of Bias in Non-Randomised Studies-I tool. A standardised extraction table was used for data extraction, which was performed by two reviewers. INTERVENTIONS Studies reporting any physical exercise intervention in any chronic musculoskeletal pain condition were included. Eligibility of 4011 records was screened independently by two reviewers, and four studies were included in the review. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES Primary outcome: any brain outcome assessed with any MR technique. SECONDARY OUTCOMES any self-reported clinical outcomes, and type and dosage of the exercise intervention. RESULTS All four studies had high risk of bias. There was heterogeneity between the brain areas studied and the types of exercise interventions delivered. All studies reported functional MRI changes in various brain areas following an exercise intervention. Insufficient data were available to conduct a meta-analysis or to answer the secondary aims. CONCLUSIONS Only a limited number of studies were available and all were at high risk of bias. None of the studies was randomised or included blinded assessment. Exercise may exert effects on brain neurobiology in people with chronic pain. Due to the high risk of bias, future studies should use a randomised study design. Investigation of morphological brain changes could be included. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER CRD42018108179.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rutger M J de Zoete
- RECOVER Injury Research Centre, NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Recovery Following Road Traffic Injuries, The University of Queensland, Herston, Queensland, Australia
- School of Allied Health Science and Practice, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Kenneth Chen
- RECOVER Injury Research Centre, NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Recovery Following Road Traffic Injuries, The University of Queensland, Herston, Queensland, Australia
- Geriatric Education and Research Institute, Singapore
| | - Michele Sterling
- RECOVER Injury Research Centre, NHMRC Centre of Research Excellence in Recovery Following Road Traffic Injuries, The University of Queensland, Herston, Queensland, Australia
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Endurance Performance is Influenced by Perceptions of Pain and Temperature: Theory, Applications and Safety Considerations. Sports Med 2018; 48:525-537. [PMID: 29270865 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-017-0852-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Models of endurance performance now recognise input from the brain, including an athlete's ability to cope with various non-pleasurable perceptions during exercise, such as pain and temperature. Exercise training can reduce perceptions of both pain and temperature over time, partly explaining why athletes generally have a higher pain tolerance, despite a similar pain threshold, compared with active controls. Several strategies with varying efficacy may ameliorate the perceptions of pain (e.g. acetaminophen, transcranial direct current stimulation and transcutaneous electrical stimulation) and temperature (e.g. menthol beverages, topical menthol products and other cooling strategies, especially those targeting the head) during exercise to improve athletic performance. This review describes both the theory and practical applications of these interventions in the endurance sport setting, as well as the potentially harmful health consequences of their use.
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Nonpharmacological Interventions in Targeting Pain-Related Brain Plasticity. Neural Plast 2017; 2017:2038573. [PMID: 28299206 PMCID: PMC5337367 DOI: 10.1155/2017/2038573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Accepted: 01/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic pain is a highly prevalent and debilitating condition that is frequently associated with multiple comorbid psychiatric conditions and functional, biochemical, and anatomical alterations in various brain centers. Due to its widespread and diverse manifestations, chronic pain is often resistant to classical pharmacological treatment paradigms, prompting the search for alternative treatment approaches that are safe and efficacious. The current review will focus on the following themes: attentional and cognitive interventions, the role of global environmental factors, and the effects of exercise and physical rehabilitation in both chronic pain patients and preclinical pain models. The manuscript will discuss not only the analgesic efficacy of these therapies, but also their ability to reverse pain-related brain neuroplasticity. Finally, we will discuss the potential mechanisms of action for each of the interventions.
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Micalos PS, Arendt-Nielsen L. Differential pain response at local and remote muscle sites following aerobic cycling exercise at mild and moderate intensity. SPRINGERPLUS 2016; 5:91. [PMID: 26848431 PMCID: PMC4729757 DOI: 10.1186/s40064-016-1721-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2015] [Accepted: 01/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Physical exercise has been shown to inhibit experimental pain response in the post-exercise period. Modulation of the pain system may be differentiated between muscle sites engaging in contractile activity. The purpose of this study was to assess the pain response at remote and local muscle sites following aerobic exercise at different work intensities. Participants included 10 healthy and physically active males (mean age ± SD, 21.2 ± 3.4). Somatic pressure pain threshold (PPT) at the rectus femoris (local) and brachioradialis (remote) muscle site was measured at before (Pre), 5 min after (Post1), and 15 min after (Post2) aerobic cycling exercise at 70 and 30 % of peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) performed on different occasions in a counterbalanced order, separated by minimum of 3 days interval. Repeated measures ANOVA for PPT reveals significant main effect for time (f = 3.581, p = 0.049, observed power = 0.588) and muscle site (f = 17.931, p = 0.002, observed power = 0.963). There was a significant interaction shown for exercise intensity by time (f = 11.390, p = 0.012, observed power = 0.790). PPT at rectus femoris following cycling exercise at 70 % of VO2peak reveals a significant increase between Pre-Post1 (p = 0.040). PPT for rectus femoris following cycling exercise at 30 % of VO2peak revealed a significant decrease between Pre-Post1 (p = 0.026) and Pre-Post2 (p = 0.008). The PPT for brachioradialis following cycling exercise at 30 % of VO2peak revealed a significant decrease between Pre-Post1 (p = 0.011) and Pre-Post2 (p = 0.005). These results show that aerobic exercise increases PPT locally at the exercise muscle site following exercise at 70 % of VO2peak but reduces PPT following exercise at 30 % of VO2peak.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter S Micalos
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Panorama Ave, Bathurst, NSW 2795 Australia
| | - Lars Arendt-Nielsen
- Department for Health Sciences and Technology, Center for Sensory-Motor Interaction, School of Medicine, Aalborg University, Fredrik Bajers Vej 7-D3, Bld. D3, 9220 Ålborg, Denmark
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