Multicomponent, peptide-targeted glycol chitosan nanoparticles containing ferrimagnetic iron oxide nanocubes for bladder cancer multimodal imaging

Nanoparticle-Based Techniques for Bladder Cancer Imaging: A Review

Bladder cancer is very common in humans and is often characterized by recurrences, compromising the patient's quality of life with a substantial social and economic impact. Both the diagnosis and treatment of bladder cancer are problematic due to the exceptionally impermeable barrier formed by the urothelium lining the bladder; this hinders the penetration of molecules via intravesical instillation while making it difficult to precisely label the tumor tissue for surgical resection or pharmacologic treatment. Nanotechnology has been envisaged as an opportunity to improve both the diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for bladder cancer since the nanoconstructs can cross the urothelial barrier and may be functionalized for active targeting, loaded with therapeutic agents, and visualized by different imaging techniques. In this article, we offer a selection of recent experimental applications of nanoparticle-based imaging techniques, with the aim of providing an easy and rapid technical guide for the development of nanoconstructs to specifically detect bladder cancer cells. Most of these applications are based on the well-established fluorescence imaging and magnetic resonance imaging currently used in the medical field and gave positive results on bladder cancer models in vivo, thus opening promising perspectives for the translation of preclinical results to the clinical practice.

Designing Intelligent Nanomaterials to Achieve Highly Sensitive Diagnoses and Multimodality Therapy of Bladder Cancer

Bladder cancer (BC) is among the most common malignant tumors of the genitourinary system worldwide. In recent years, the rate of BC incidence has increased, and the recurrence rate is high, resulting in poor quality of life for patients. Therefore, how to develop an effective method to achieve synchronous precise diagnoses and BC therapies is a difficult problem to solve clinically. Previous reports usually focus on the role of nanomaterials as drug delivery carriers, while a summary of the functional design and application of nanomaterials is lacking. Summarizing the application of functional nanomaterials in high-sensitivity diagnosis and multimodality therapy of BC is urgently needed. This review summarizes the application of nanotechnology in BC diagnosis, including the application of nanotechnology in the sensoring of BC biomarkers and their role in monitoring BC. In addition, conventional and combination therapies strategy in potential BC therapy are analyzed. Moreover, different kinds of nanomaterials in BC multimodal therapy according to pathological features of BC are also outlined. The goal of this review is to present an overview of the application of nanomaterials in the theranostics of BC to provide guidance for the application of functional nanomaterials to precisely diagnose and treat BC.

In Vivo Optical Imaging of Bladder Cancer Tissues in an MB49 Bladder Cancer Orthotopic Mouse Model Using the Intravesical or Intravenous Administration of Near-Infrared Fluorescence Probe

Bladder cancer was the twelfth most common cancer worldwide in 2020. Although bladder cancer has been diagnosed using macroscopic techniques, such as white-light cystoscopy and fluorescence blue-light cystoscopy, there is a need to explore more effective noninvasive optical imaging techniques for accurate bladder cancer diagnosis. This study demonstrates the high effectiveness of the near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) probe ASP5354, which has been developed for ureteral identification during in vivo diagnosis of bladder cancer in an MB49 bladder cancer orthotopic mouse model. After the intravesical injection of 2.4 μM ASP5354 followed by bladder rinsing with saline at 5 min post injection or intravenous administration of ASP5354 at 240 nmol/kg mouse body weight, followed by a waiting period of 5-24 h in mice, ASP5354 was absorbed specifically by cancerous tissue and not by normal tissues in the bladder. NIRF of ASP5354 in cancer tissues was detected using the NIRF imaging camera system. The NIRF clearly showed a boundary between cancerous and normal tissues. Therefore, ASP5354 provides noninvasive and specific optical in vivo imaging of MB49 bladder cancer using intravesical or intravenous injection of ASP5354. ASP5354 may allow for new diagnostic applications for bladder cancer in humans.

Recent Progress in Nanomaterial-Based Biosensors and Theranostic Nanomedicine for Bladder Cancer

Bladder cancer (BCa) is one of the most expensive and common malignancies in the urinary system due to its high progression and recurrence rate. Although there are various methods, including cystoscopy, biopsy, and cytology, that have become the standard diagnosis methods for BCa, their intrinsic invasive and inaccurate properties need to be overcome. The novel urine cancer biomarkers are assisted by nanomaterials-based biosensors, such as field-effect transistors (FETs) with high sensitivity and specificity, which may provide solutions to these problems. In addition, nanomaterials can be applied for the advancement of next-generation optical imaging techniques and the contrast agents of conventional techniques; for example, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for the diagnosis of BCa. Regarding BCa therapy, nanocarriers, including mucoadhesive nanoparticles and other polymeric nanoparticles, successfully overcome the disadvantages of conventional intravesical instillation and improve the efficacy and safety of intravesical chemotherapy for BCa. Aside from chemotherapy, nanomedicine-based novel therapies, including photodynamic therapy (PDT), photothermal therapy (PTT), chemodynamic therapy (CDT), sonodynamic therapy (SDT), and combination therapy, have afforded us new ways to provide BC therapy and hope, which can be translated into the clinic. In addition, nanomotors and the nanomaterials-based solid tumor disassociation strategy provide new ideas for future research. Here, the advances in BCa diagnosis and therapy mentioned above are reviewed in this paper.

Current advances in the application of nanomedicine in bladder cancer

Bladder cancer is the most common malignant tumor of the urinary system, however there are several shortcomings in current diagnostic and therapeutic measures. In terms of diagnosis, the diagnostic tools currently available are not sufficiently sensitive and specific, and imaging is poor, leading to misdiagnosis and missed diagnoses, which can delay treatment. In terms of treatment, current treatment options include surgery, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, gene therapy, and other emerging treatments, as well as combination therapies. However, the main reasons for poor efficacy and side effects during treatment are the lack of specificity and targeting, improper dose control of drugs and photosensitizers, damage to normal cells while attacking cancer cells, and difficulty in delivering siRNA to cancer cells. Nanomedicine is an emerging approach. Among the many nanotechnologies applied in the medical field, nanocarrier-assisted drug delivery systems have attracted extensive research interest due to their great translational value. Well-designed nanoparticles can deliver agents or drugs to specific cell types within target organs through active targeting or passive targeting (enhanced permeability and retention), which allows for imaging, diagnosis, as well as treatment of cancer. This paper reviews advances in the application of various nanocarriers and their advantages and drawbacks, with a focus on their use in the diagnosis and treatment of bladder cancer.

(Nano)platforms in bladder cancer therapy: Challenges and opportunities

Urological cancers are among the most common malignancies around the world. In particular, bladder cancer severely threatens human health due to its aggressive and heterogeneous nature. Various therapeutic modalities have been considered for the treatment of bladder cancer although its prognosis remains unfavorable. It is perceived that treatment of bladder cancer depends on an interdisciplinary approach combining biology and engineering. The nanotechnological approaches have been introduced in the treatment of various cancers, especially bladder cancer. The current review aims to emphasize and highlight possible applications of nanomedicine in eradication of bladder tumor. Nanoparticles can improve efficacy of drugs in bladder cancer therapy through elevating their bioavailability. The potential of genetic tools such as siRNA and miRNA in gene expression regulation can be boosted using nanostructures by facilitating their internalization and accumulation at tumor sites and cells. Nanoparticles can provide photodynamic and photothermal therapy for ROS overgeneration and hyperthermia, respectively, in the suppression of bladder cancer. Furthermore, remodeling of tumor microenvironment and infiltration of immune cells for the purpose of immunotherapy are achieved through cargo-loaded nanocarriers. Nanocarriers are mainly internalized in bladder tumor cells by endocytosis, and proper design of smart nanoparticles such as pH-, redox-, and light-responsive nanocarriers is of importance for targeted tumor therapy. Bladder cancer biomarkers can be detected using nanoparticles for timely diagnosis of patients. Based on their accumulation at the tumor site, they can be employed for tumor imaging. The clinical translation and challenges are also covered in current review.

Microbial polysaccharides: An emerging family of natural biomaterials for cancer therapy and diagnostics

Microbial polysaccharides (MPs) offer immense diversity in structural and functional properties. They are extensively used in advance biomedical science owing to their superior biodegradability, hemocompatibility, and capability to imitate the natural extracellular matrix microenvironment. Ease in tailoring, inherent bio-activity, distinct mucoadhesiveness, ability to absorb hydrophobic drugs, and plentiful availability of MPs make them prolific green biomaterials to overcome the significant constraints of cancer chemotherapeutics. Many studies have demonstrated their application to obstruct tumor development and extend survival through immune activation, apoptosis induction, and cell cycle arrest by MPs. Synoptic investigations of MPs are compulsory to decode applied basics in recent inclinations towards cancer regimens. The current review focuses on the anticancer properties of commercially available and newly explored MPs, and outlines their direct and indirect mode of action. The review also highlights cutting-edge MPs-based drug delivery systems to augment the specificity and efficiency of available chemotherapeutics, as well as their emerging role in theranostics.

Current Researches on Nanodrug Delivery Systems in Bladder Cancer Intravesical Chemotherapy

Bladder cancer is one of the most common malignant tumors in urinary system. Intravesical chemotherapy is a common adjuvant therapy after transurethral resection of bladder tumors. However, it has several disadvantages such as low drug penetration rate, short residence time, unsustainable action and inability to release slowly, thus new drug delivery and new modalities in delivery carriers need to be continuously explored. Nano-drug delivery system is a novel way in treatment for bladder cancer that can increase the absorption rate and prolong the duration of drug, as well as sustain the action by controlling drug release. Currently, nano-drug delivery carriers mainly included liposomes, polymers, and inorganic materials. In this paper, we reveal current researches in nano-drug delivery system in bladder cancer intravesical chemotherapy by describing the applications and defects of liposomes, polymers and inorganic material nanocarriers, and provide a basis for the improvement of intravesical chemotherapy drugs in bladder cancer.

Nanomedicine for urologic cancers: diagnosis and management

Urologic cancers accounted for more than 2 million new cases and around 0.8 million deaths in 2020. Although surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, as well as castration for prostate cancer, remain the cornerstones for managing urologic neoplasms, they can result in severe adverse effects, poor patient compliance, and unsatisfactory survival rates, thus, it is essential to develop novel options that enable the early detection of these malignancies, together with providing accurate diagnoses, and more efficient treatment strategies. Nanomedicine represents an emerging approach that can deliver formulations or drugs across traditional biological barriers in the body and be directed to specific cell types within target organs via active targeting or passive targeting, thus, showing potential to improve the management of urologic cancers. In this review, we discussed the most recent updates on the application of nanomedicines in the diagnosis and treatment of urologic cancers, with focus on prostate, bladder and kidney tumors. We also presented the anti-tumor molecular mechanisms of newly designed nanomedicine for treating urologic cancers, mainly including image-guided surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, gene therapy, immunotherapy, and their synergetic therapy. Current studies have demonstrated the potential advantages of nanomedicine over conventional approaches. However, most developments and new findings in this area have not been validated in clinical trials yet, and therefore, efforts shall be made to translate these research insights into clinical practices for urologic cancers.

Chemical Modification of Chitosan for Developing Cancer Nanotheranostics

Cancer is a worldwide public health issue that has not been conquered. Theranostics, the combination of a therapeutic drug and imaging agent in one formulation using nanomaterials, has been developed to better cure cancer in recent years. Although diverse biomaterials have been applied in cancer theranostics, chitosan (CS), a natural polysaccharide bearing easy modification sites with excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability, shows great potential for developing cancer nanotheranostics. In this review, we seek to describe the chemical functionalities of CS used in cancer theranostics and their synthesis methods. We also present recent discoveries and research progresses on how the CS functionalization could improve the delivery efficiency of CS-based nanotheranostics. Finally, we report several case studies about the application of CS-based nanotheranostics. This paper focuses on the strategies to construct CS-based theranostics systems via chemical routes and highlights their applications in cancer treatment, which can provide useful references for further studies.

Nano-Theranostics for the Sensing, Imaging and Therapy of Prostate Cancers

We highlight hereby recent developments in the emerging field of theranostics, which encompasses the combination of therapeutics and diagnostics in a single entity aimed for an early-stage diagnosis, image-guided therapy as well as evaluation of therapeutic outcomes of relevance to prostate cancer (PCa). Prostate cancer is one of the most common malignancies in men and a frequent cause of male cancer death. As such, this overview is concerned with recent developments in imaging and sensing of relevance to prostate cancer diagnosis and therapeutic monitoring. A major advantage for the effective treatment of PCa is an early diagnosis that would provide information for an appropriate treatment. Several imaging techniques are being developed to diagnose and monitor different stages of cancer in general, and patient stratification is particularly relevant for PCa. Hybrid imaging techniques applicable for diagnosis combine complementary structural and morphological information to enhance resolution and sensitivity of imaging. The focus of this review is to sum up some of the most recent advances in the nanotechnological approaches to the sensing and treatment of prostate cancer (PCa). Targeted imaging using nanoparticles, radiotracers and biomarkers could result to a more specialised and personalised diagnosis and treatment of PCa. A myriad of reports has been published literature proposing methods to detect and treat PCa using nanoparticles but the number of techniques approved for clinical use is relatively small. Another facet of this report is on reviewing aspects of the role of functional nanoparticles in multimodality imaging therapy considering recent developments in simultaneous PET-MRI (Positron Emission Tomography-Magnetic Resonance Imaging) coupled with optical imaging in vitro and in vivo, whilst highlighting feasible case studies that hold promise for the next generation of dual modality medical imaging of PCa. It is envisaged that progress in the field of imaging and sensing domains, taken together, could benefit from the biomedical implementation of new synthetic platforms such as metal complexes and functional materials supported on organic molecular species, which can be conjugated to targeting biomolecules and encompass adaptable and versatile molecular architectures. Furthermore, we include hereby an overview of aspects of biosensing methods aimed to tackle PCa: prostate biomarkers such as Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) have been incorporated into synthetic platforms and explored in the context of sensing and imaging applications in preclinical investigations for the early detection of PCa. Finally, some of the societal concerns around nanotechnology being used for the detection of PCa are considered and addressed together with the concerns about the toxicity of nanoparticles–these were aspects of recent lively debates that currently hamper the clinical advancements of nano-theranostics. The publications survey conducted for this review includes, to the best of our knowledge, some of the most recent relevant literature examples from the state-of-the-art. Highlighting these advances would be of interest to the biomedical research community aiming to advance the application of theranostics particularly in PCa diagnosis and treatment, but also to those interested in the development of new probes and methodologies for the simultaneous imaging and therapy monitoring employed for PCa targeting.

NIR-I Dye-Based Probe: A New Window for Bimodal Tumor Theranostics

Near-infrared (NIR, 650-1700 nm) bioimaging has emerged as a powerful strategy in tumor diagnosis. In particular, NIR-I fluorescence imaging (650-950 nm) has drawn more attention, benefiting from the high quantum yield and good biocompatibility. Since their biomedical applications are slightly limited by their relatively low penetration depth, NIR-I fluorescence imaging probes have been under extensive development in recent years. This review summarizes the particular application of the NIR-I fluorescent dye-contained bimodal probes, with emphasis on related nanoprobes. These probes have enabled us to overcome the drawbacks of individual imaging modalities as well as achieve synergistic imaging. Meanwhile, the application of these NIR-I fluorescence-based bimodal probes for cancer theranostics is highlighted.

Application of nanotechnology in the diagnosis and treatment of bladder cancer

Bladder cancer (BC) is a common malignancy in the genitourinary system and the current theranostic approaches are unsatisfactory. Sensitivity and specificity of current diagnosis methods are not ideal and high recurrence and progression rates after initial treatment indicate the urgent need for management improvements in clinic. Nanotechnology has been proposed as an effective method to improve theranosis efficiency for both non-muscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) and muscle invasive bladder cancer (MIBC). For example, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have been developed for simple, fast and sensitive urinary sample test for bladder cancer diagnosis. Nanoparticles targeting bladder cancers can facilitate to distinguish the normal and abnormal bladder tissues during cystoscopy and thus help with the complete removal of malignant lesions. Both intravenous and intravesical agents can be modified by nanotechnology for targeted delivery, high anti-tumor efficiency and excellent tolerability, exhibiting encouraging potential in bladder cancer treatment. Photosensitizers and biological agents can also be delivered by nanotechnology, intermediating phototherapy and targeted therapy. The management of bladder cancer remained almost unchanged for decades with unsatisfactory effect. However, it is likely to change with the fast-developed nanotechnology. Herein we summarized the current utility of nanotechnology in bladder cancer diagnosis and treatment, providing insights for the future designing and discovering novel nanoparticles for bladder cancer management.

Facilitated and Controlled Strontium Ranelate Delivery Using GCS-HA Nanocarriers Embedded into PEGDA Coupled with Decortication Driven Spinal Regeneration

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Strontium ranelate (SrR) is an oral pharmaceutical agent for osteoporosis. In recent years, numerous unwanted side effects of oral SrR have been revealed. Therefore, its clinical administration and applications are limited. Hereby, this study aims to develop, formulate, and characterize an effective SrR carrier system for spinal bone regeneration.

METHODS

Herein, glycol chitosan with hyaluronic acid (HA)-based nanoformulation was used to encapsulate SrR nanoparticles (SrRNPs) through electrostatic interaction. Afterward, the poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA)-based hydrogels were used to encapsulate pre-synthesized SrRNPs (SrRNPs-H). The scanning electron microscope (SEM), TEM, rheometer, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and dynamic light scattering (DLS) were used to characterize prepared formulations. The rabbit osteoblast and a rat spinal decortication models were used to evaluate and assess the developed formulation biocompatibility and therapeutic efficacy.

RESULTS

In vitro and in vivo studies for cytotoxicity and bone regeneration were conducted. The cell viability test showed that SrRNPs exerted no cytotoxic effects in osteoblast in vitro. Furthermore, in vivo analysis for new bone regeneration mechanism was carried out on rat decortication models. Radiographical and histological analysis suggested a higher level of bone regeneration in the SrRNPs-H-implanted groups than in the other experimental groups.

CONCLUSION

Local administration of the newly developed formulated SrR could be a promising alternative therapy to enhance bone regeneration in bone-defect sites in future clinical applications.

Nanomaterials to Fight Cancer: An Overview on Their Multifunctional Exploitability

In recent years the worldwide research community has highlighted innumerable benefits of nanomaterials in cancer detection and therapy. Nevertheless, the development of cancer nanomedicines and other bionanotechnology requires a huge amount of considerations about the interactions of nanomaterials and biological systems, since long-term effects are not yet fully known. Open issues remain the determination of the nanoparticles distributions patterns and the internalization rate into the tumor while avoiding their accumulation in internal organs or other healthy tissues. The purpose of this work is to provide a standard overview of the most recent advances in nanomaterials to fight cancer and to collect trends and future directions to follow according to some critical aspects still present in this field. Complementary to the very recent review of Wolfram and Ferrari which discusses and classifies successful clinically-approved cancer nanodrugs as well as promising candidates in the pipeline, this work embraces part of their proposed classification system based on the exploitation of multifunctionality and extends the review to peer-reviewed journal articles published in the last 3 years identified through international databases.

Iron oxide nanoparticles conjugated with organic optical probes for in vivo diagnostic and therapeutic applications

The role and scope of functional inorganic nanoparticles in biomedical research is well established. Among these, iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) have gained maximum attention as they can provide targeting, imaging and therapeutic capabilities. Furthermore, incorporation of organic optical probes with IONPs can significantly enhance the scope and viability of their biomedical applications. Combination of two or more such applications renders multimodality in nanoparticles, which can be exploited to obtain synergistic benefits in disease detection and therapy viz theranostics, which is a key trait of nanoparticles for advanced biomedical applications. This review focuses on the use of IONPs conjugated with organic optical probe/s for multimodal diagnostic and therapeutic applications in vivo.

Iron Oxide-Based Magneto-Optical Nanocomposites for In Vivo Biomedical Applications

Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) have played a pivotal role in the development of nanomedicine owing to their versatile functions at the nanoscale, which facilitates targeted delivery, high contrast imaging, and on-demand therapy. Some biomedical inadequacies of IONPs on their own, such as the poor resolution of IONP-based Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), can be overcome by co-incorporating optical probes onto them, which can be either molecule- or nanoparticulate-based. Optical probe incorporated IONPs, together with two prominent non-ionizing radiation sources (i.e., magnetic field and light), enable a myriad of biomedical applications from early detection to targeted treatment of various diseases. In this context, many research articles are in the public domain on magneto-optical nanoparticles; discussed in detail are fabrication strategies for their application in the biomedical field; however, lacking is a comprehensive review on real-life applications in vivo, their toxicity, and the prospect of bench-to-bedside clinical studies. Therefore, in this review, we focused on selecting such important nanocomposites where IONPs become the magnetic component, conjugated with various types of optical probes; we clearly classified them into class 1 to class 6 categories and present only in vivo studies. In addition, we briefly discuss the potential toxicity of such nanocomposites and their respective challenges for clinical translations.

Biocompatibility of nanomaterials and their immunological properties

Nanomaterials (NMs) have revolutionized multiple aspects of medicine by enabling novel sensing, diagnostic, and therapeutic approaches. Advancements in processing and fabrication have also allowed significant expansion in the applications of the major classes of NMs based on polymer, metal/metal oxide, carbon, liposome, or multi-scale macro-nano bulk materials. Concomitantly, concerns regarding the nanotoxicity and overall biocompatibility of NMs have been raised. These involve putative negative effects on both patients and those subjected to occupational exposure during manufacturing. In this review, we describe the current state of testing of NMs including those that are in clinical use, in clinical trials, or under development. We also discuss the cellular and molecular interactions that dictate their toxicity and biocompatibility. Specifically, we focus on the reciprocal interactions between NMs and host proteins, lipids, and sugars and how these induce responses in immune and other cell types leading to topical and/or systemic effects.

Comparative Evaluation of Different Chitosan Species and Derivatives as Candidate Biomaterials for Oxygen-Loaded Nanodroplet Formulations to Treat Chronic Wounds

Persistent hypoxia is a main clinical feature of chronic wounds. Intriguingly, oxygen-loaded nanodroplets (OLNDs), filled with oxygen-solving 2H,3H-decafluoropentane and shelled with polysaccharides, have been proposed as a promising tool to counteract hypoxia by releasing a clinically relevant oxygen amount in a time-sustained manner. Here, four different types of chitosan (low or medium weight (LW or MW), glycol-(G-), and methylglycol-(MG-) chitosan) were compared as candidate biopolymers for shell manufacturing. The aim of the work was to design OLND formulations with optimized physico-chemical characteristics, efficacy in oxygen release, and biocompatibility. All OLND formulations displayed spherical morphology, cationic surfaces, ≤500 nm diameters (with LW chitosan-shelled OLNDs being the smallest), high stability, good oxygen encapsulation efficiency, and prolonged oxygen release kinetics. Upon cellular internalization, LW, MW, and G-chitosan-shelled nanodroplets did not significantly affect the viability, health, or metabolic activity of human keratinocytes (HaCaT cell line). On the contrary, MG-chitosan-shelled nanodroplets showed very poor biocompatibility. Combining the physico-chemical and the biological results obtained, LW chitosan emerges as the best candidate biopolymer for future OLND application as a skin device to treat chronic wounds.

Tumor-Targeting Glycol Chitosan Nanoparticles for Cancer Heterogeneity

Nanomedicine is extensively employed for cancer treatment owing to its unique advantages over conventional drugs and imaging agents. This increased attention to nanomedicine, however, has not fully translated into clinical utilization and patient benefits due to issues associated with reticuloendothelial system clearance, tumor heterogeneity, and complexity of the tumor microenvironment. To address these challenges, efforts are being made to modify the design of nanomedicines, including optimization of their physiochemical properties, active targeting, and response to stimuli, but these studies are often performed independently. Combining favorable nanomedicine designs from individual studies may improve therapeutic outcomes, but, this is difficult to achieve as the effects of different designs are interconnected and often conflicting. Glycol chitosan nanoparticles (CNPs) are shown to accumulate in tumors, suggesting that this type of nanoparticle may constitute a good basis for the additional modification of nanoparticles. Here, multifunctional glycol CNPs designed to overcome multiple obstacles to their use are described and key factors influencing in vivo targeted delivery, targeting strategies, and interesting stimulus-responsive designs for improving cancer nanomedicine are discussed.

Simultaneous Monitoring of Multi-Enzyme Activity and Concentration in Tumor Using a Triply Labeled Fluorescent In Vivo Imaging Probe

The use of fluorescent imaging probes that monitor the activity of proteases that experience an increase in expression and activity in tumors is well established. These probes can be conjugated to nanoparticles of iron oxide, creating a multimodal probe serving as both a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) agent and an indicator of local protease activity. Previous works describe probes for cathepsin D (CatD) and metalloproteinase-2 (MMP2) protease activity grafted to cross-linked iron oxide nanoparticles (CLIO). Herein, we have synthesized a triply labeled fluorescent iron oxide nanoparticle molecular imaging (MI) probe, including an AF750 substrate concentration reporter along with probes for cathepsin B (CatB) sand MMP2 protease activity. The reporter provides a baseline signal from which to compare the activity of the two proteases. The activity of the MI probe was verified through incubation with the proteases and tested in vitro using the human HT29 tumor cell line and in vivo using female nude mice injected with HT29 cells. We found the MI probe had the appropriate specificity to the activity of their respective proteases, and the reporter dye did not activate when incubated in the presence of only MMP2 and CatB. Probe fluorescent activity was confirmed in vitro, and reporter signal activation was also noted. The fluorescent activity was also visible in vivo, with injected HT29 cells exhibiting fluorescence, distinguishing them from the rest of the animal. The reporter signal was also observable in vivo, which allowed the signal intensities of the protease probes to be corrected; this is a unique feature of this MI probe design.

Advances in chitosan-based nanoparticles for oncotherapy

Chitosan has attracted considerable attention as an anti-tumor drug carrier material in recent years, which is due to its biocompatibility and biodegradability, as well as the simple and mild preparing techniques of drug-loaded nanoparticles. Chitosan-based nanoparticles can deliver various anti-tumor agents to specific tumor tissues by passive and active targeting mechanisms, including traditional chemotherapeutic agents, DNA or siRNA, proteins, photosensitizers and so on. In this review, we summarized the factors affecting the anti-tumor efficacy of chitosan-based nanoparticles, to aid exploring the function-structure relationship. The recent studies on chitosan-based nanoparticles for oncotherapy were highlighted, including their structures, properties and pharmacological effects. Finally, we offered our perspectives on the challenges and future development of this area.

Chitosan nanopolymers: An overview of drug delivery against cancer

Cancer is becoming a major reason for death troll worldwide due to the difficulty in finding an efficient, cost effective and target specific method of treatment or diagnosis. The variety of cancer therapy used in the present scenario have painful side effects, low effectiveness and high cost, which are some major drawbacks of the available therapies. Apart from the conventional cancer therapy, nanotechnology has grown extremely towards treating cancer. Nanotechnology is a promising area of science focusing on developing target specific drug delivery system for carrying small or large active molecules to diagnose and treat cancer cells. In the field of nanoscience, Chitosan nanopolymers (ChNPs) are been emerging as a potential carrier due to their biodegradability and biocompatibility. The easy modification and versatility in administration route of ChNPs has attracted attention of researchers towards loading chemicals, proteins and gene drugs for target specific therapy of cancer cells. Therefore, the present review deals with the growing concern towards cancer therapy, introduction of ChNPs, mode of action and other strategies employed by researchers till date towards cancer treatment and diagnosis ChNPs.

The Use of Polymer Chitosan in Intravesical Treatment of Urinary Bladder Cancer and Infections

The most frequent diseases of the urinary bladder are bacterial infections and bladder cancers. For both diseases, very high recurrence rates are characteristic: 50⁻80% for bladder cancer and more than 50% for bladder infections, causing loss of millions of dollars per year for medical treatment and sick leave. Despite years of searching for better treatment, the prevalence of bladder infections and bladder cancer remains unchanged and is even increasing in recent years. Very encouraging results in treatment of both diseases recently culminated from studies combining biopolymer chitosan with immunotherapy, and chitosan with antibiotics for treatment of bladder cancer and cystitis, respectably. In both pathways of research, the discoveries involving chitosan reached a successful long-lasting cure. The property of chitosan that boosted the effectivity of illness-specific drugs is its ability to enhance the accessibility of these drugs to the very sources of both pathologies that individual treatments without chitosan failed to achieve. Chitosan can thus be recognised as a very promising co-player in treatment of bladder cancer and bacterial cystitis.

Advancements in optical techniques and imaging in the diagnosis and management of bladder cancer

Accurate detection and staging is critical to the appropriate management of urothelial cancer (UC). The use of advanced optical techniques during cystoscopy is becoming more widespread to prevent recurrent nonmuscle invasive bladder cancer. Standard of care for muscle-invasive UC includes the use of computed tomography and/or magnetic resonance imaging, but staging accuracy of these tests remains imperfect. Novel imaging modalities are being developed to improve current test performance. Positron emission tomography/computed tomography has a role in the initial evaluation of select patients with muscle-invasive bladder cancer and in disease recurrence in some cases. Several novel immuno-positron emission tomography tracers are currently in development to address the inadequacy of current imaging modalities for monitoring of tumor response to newer immune-based treatments. This review summaries the current standards and recent advances in optical techniques and imaging modalities in localized and metastatic UC.

Polydopamine and peptide decorated doxorubicin-loaded mesoporous silica nanoparticles as a targeted drug delivery system for bladder cancer therapy

We reported a simple polydopamine (PDA)-based surface modification method to prepare novel targeted doxorubicin-loaded mesoporous silica nanoparticles and peptide CSNRDARRC conjugation (DOX-loaded MSNs@PDA-PEP) for enhancing the therapeutic effects on bladder cancer. Drug-loaded NPs were characterized in terms of size, size distribution, zeta potential, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area and drug loading content. In vitro drug release indicated that DOX-loaded MSNs@PDA and MSNs@PDA-PEP had similar release kinetic profiles of DOX. The PDA coating well controlled DOX release and was highly sensitive to pH value. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) showed that drug-loaded MSNs could be internalized by human bladder cancer cell line HT-1376, and DOX-loaded MSNs@PDA-PEP had the highest cellular uptake efficiency due to ligand-receptor recognition. The antitumor effects of DOX-loaded nanoparticles were evaluated by the MTT assay in vitro and by a xenograft tumor model in vivo, demonstrating that targeted nanocarriers DOX-loaded MSNs@PDA-PEP were significantly superior to free DOX and DOX-loaded MSNs@PDA. The novel DOX-loaded MSNs@PDA-PEP, which specifically recognized HT-1376 cells, can be used as a potential targeted drug delivery system for bladder cancer therapy.

Chitosan-Coated Cinnamon/Oregano-Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles to Augment 5-Fluorouracil Cytotoxicity for Colorectal Cancer: Extract Standardization, Nanoparticle Optimization, and Cytotoxicity Evaluation

This study aimed to coat lipid-based nanocarriers with chitosan to encapsulate nutraceuticals, minimize opsonization, and facilitate passive-targeting. Phase one was concerned with standardization according to the World Health Organization. Qualitative analysis using liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS/MS) investigated the active constituents, especially reported cytotoxic agents. Cinnamaldehyde and rosmarinic acid were selected to be quantified using high-performance liquid chromatography. Phase two was aimed to encapsulate both extracts in solid lipid nanoparticles (core) and chitosan (shell) to gain the advantages of both materials properties. The developed experimental model suggested an optimum formulation with 2% lipid, 2.3% surfactant, and 0.4% chitosan to achieve a particle size of 254.77 nm, polydispersity index of 0.28, zeta potential of +15.26, and entrapment efficiency percentage of 77.3% and 69.1% for cinnamon and oregano, respectively. Phase three was focused on the evaluation of cytotoxic activity unencapsulated/encapsulated cinnamon and oregano extracts with/without 5-fluorouracil on HCT-116 cells. This study confirmed the success of the suggested combination with 5-fluorouracil for treating human colon carcinoma with a low dose leading to decreasing side effects and allowing uninterrupted therapy.

Synthesis of Distinct Iron Oxide Nanomaterial Shapes Using Lyotropic Liquid Crystal Solvents

A room temperature reduction-hydrolysis of Fe(III) precursors such as FeCl₃ or Fe(acac)₃ in various lyotropic liquid crystal phases (lamellar, hexagonal columnar, or micellar) formed by a range of ionic or neutral surfactants in H₂O is shown to be an effective and mild approach for the preparation of iron oxide (IO) nanomaterials with several morphologies (shapes and dimensions), such as extended thin nanosheets with lateral dimensions of several hundred nanometers as well as smaller nanoflakes and nanodiscs in the tens of nanometers size regime. We will discuss the role of the used surfactants and lyotropic liquid crystal phases as well as the shape and size differences depending upon when and how the resulting nanomaterials were isolated from the reaction mixture. The presented synthetic methodology using lyotropic liquid crystal solvents should be widely applicable to several other transition metal oxides for which the described reduction-hydrolysis reaction sequence is a suitable pathway to obtain nanoscale particles.

Multicomponent, Tumor-Homing Chitosan Nanoparticles for Cancer Imaging and Therapy

Current clinical methods for cancer diagnosis and therapy have limitations, although survival periods are increasing as medical technologies develop. In most cancer cases, patient survival is closely related to cancer stage. Late-stage cancer after metastasis is very challenging to cure because current surgical removal of cancer is not precise enough and significantly affects bystander normal tissues. Moreover, the subsequent chemotherapy and radiation therapy affect not only malignant tumors, but also healthy tissues. Nanotechnologies for cancer treatment have the clear objective of solving these issues. Nanoparticles have been developed to more accurately differentiate early-stage malignant tumors and to treat only the tumors while dramatically minimizing side effects. In this review, we focus on recent chitosan-based nanoparticles developed with the goal of accurate cancer imaging and effective treatment. Regarding imaging applications, we review optical and magnetic resonance cancer imaging in particular. Regarding cancer treatments, we review various therapeutic methods that use chitosan-based nanoparticles, including chemo-, gene, photothermal, photodynamic and magnetic therapies.

Physicochemical characterization of chitosan-hyaluronan-coated solid lipid nanoparticles for the targeted delivery of paclitaxel: a proof-of-concept study in breast cancer cells

Aim: To investigate the potential of modified solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) for the delivery of paclitaxel (PAX). Materials & methods: SLN loaded with PAX were prepared via modified high-pressure hot homogenization. Formulation parameters were optimized to obtain a high-quality delivery system. SLN cores were coated, layer-by-layer, with a chitosan and hyaluronan (HA) shell. Selectivity toward HA receptors was tested in a breast cancer cell line, MCF-7. Results: Stable and reproducible nano-sized and negatively charged nanoparticles resulted. Findings reveal that chitosan-HA-coated SLN facilitated the targeting, cellular uptake and the time-/dose-controlled delivery and release of PAX, enhancing intrinsic chemotherapeutic activities. Conclusion: SLN are suitable carrier candidates for nano-oncology given their localized, and potent cytotoxic potential overcoming multidrug-resistant cancer cells.