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Franck CO, Fanslau L, Bistrovic Popov A, Tyagi P, Fruk L. Biopolymer-based Carriers for DNA Vaccine Design. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021; 60:13225-13243. [PMID: 32893932 PMCID: PMC8247987 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202010282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Over the last 30 years, genetically engineered DNA has been tested as novel vaccination strategy against various diseases, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B, several parasites, and cancers. However, the clinical breakthrough of the technique is confined by the low transfection efficacy and immunogenicity of the employed vaccines. Therefore, carrier materials were designed to prevent the rapid degradation and systemic clearance of DNA in the body. In this context, biopolymers are a particularly promising DNA vaccine carrier platform due to their beneficial biochemical and physical characteristics, including biocompatibility, stability, and low toxicity. This article reviews the applications, fabrication, and modification of biopolymers as carrier medium for genetic vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph O. Franck
- Department of Chemical Engineering and BiotechnologyUniversity of CambridgePhillipa Fawcett DriveCambridgeCB3 0ASUK
| | - Luise Fanslau
- Department of Chemical Engineering and BiotechnologyUniversity of CambridgePhillipa Fawcett DriveCambridgeCB3 0ASUK
| | - Andrea Bistrovic Popov
- Department of Chemical Engineering and BiotechnologyUniversity of CambridgePhillipa Fawcett DriveCambridgeCB3 0ASUK
| | - Puneet Tyagi
- Dosage Form Design and DevelopmentBioPharmaceuticals DevelopmentR&DAstra ZenecaGaithersburgMD20878USA
| | - Ljiljana Fruk
- Department of Chemical Engineering and BiotechnologyUniversity of CambridgePhillipa Fawcett DriveCambridgeCB3 0ASUK
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2
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Amreddy N, Babu A, Muralidharan R, Munshi A, Ramesh R. Polymeric Nanoparticle-Mediated Gene Delivery for Lung Cancer Treatment. Top Curr Chem (Cham) 2017; 375:35. [PMID: 28290155 PMCID: PMC5480422 DOI: 10.1007/s41061-017-0128-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2016] [Accepted: 02/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, researchers have focused on targeted gene therapy for lung cancer, using nanoparticle carriers to overcome the limitations of conventional treatment methods. The main goal of targeted gene therapy is to develop more efficient therapeutic strategies by improving the bioavailability, stability, and target specificity of gene therapeutics and to reduce off-target effects. Polymer-based nanoparticles, an alternative to lipid and inorganic nanoparticles, efficiently carry nucleic acid therapeutics and are stable in vivo. Receptor-targeted delivery is a promising approach that can limit non-specific gene delivery and can be achieved by modifying the polymer nanoparticle surface with specific receptor ligands or antibodies. This review highlights the recent developments in gene delivery using synthetic and natural polymer-based nucleic acid carriers for lung cancer treatment. Various nanoparticle systems based on polymers and polymer combinations are discussed. Further, examples of targeting ligands or moieties used in targeted, polymer-based gene delivery to lung cancer are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Narsireddy Amreddy
- Department of Pathology, Stanton L. Young Biomedical Research Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Suite 1403, 975 N.E., 10th Street, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
- Stephenson Cancer Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Anish Babu
- Department of Pathology, Stanton L. Young Biomedical Research Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Suite 1403, 975 N.E., 10th Street, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
- Stephenson Cancer Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Ranganayaki Muralidharan
- Department of Pathology, Stanton L. Young Biomedical Research Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Suite 1403, 975 N.E., 10th Street, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
- Stephenson Cancer Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Anupama Munshi
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
- Stephenson Cancer Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Rajagopal Ramesh
- Department of Pathology, Stanton L. Young Biomedical Research Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Suite 1403, 975 N.E., 10th Street, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA.
- Stephenson Cancer Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
- Graduate Program in Biomedical Sciences, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
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Auslander N, Wagner A, Oberhardt M, Ruppin E. Data-Driven Metabolic Pathway Compositions Enhance Cancer Survival Prediction. PLoS Comput Biol 2016; 12:e1005125. [PMID: 27673682 PMCID: PMC5038951 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2016] [Accepted: 08/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Altered cellular metabolism is an important characteristic and driver of cancer. Surprisingly, however, we find here that aggregating individual gene expression using canonical metabolic pathways fails to enhance the classification of noncancerous vs. cancerous tissues and the prediction of cancer patient survival. This supports the notion that metabolic alterations in cancer rewire cellular metabolism through unconventional pathways. Here we present MCF (Metabolic classifier and feature generator), which incorporates gene expression measurements into a human metabolic network to infer new cancer-mediated pathway compositions that enhance cancer vs. adjacent noncancerous tissue classification across five different cancer types. MCF outperforms standard classifiers based on individual gene expression and on canonical human curated metabolic pathways. It successfully builds robust classifiers integrating different datasets of the same cancer type. Reassuringly, the MCF pathways identified lead to metabolites known to be associated with the pertaining specific cancer types. Aggregating gene expression through MCF pathways leads to markedly better predictions of breast cancer patients’ survival in an independent cohort than using the canonical human metabolic pathways (C-index = 0.69 vs. 0.52, respectively). Notably, the survival predictive power of individual MCF pathways strongly correlates with their power in predicting cancer vs. noncancerous samples. The more predictive composite pathways identified via MCF are hence more likely to capture key metabolic alterations occurring in cancer than the canonical pathways characterizing healthy human metabolism. Cancer proliferating cells adapt their metabolism to support the conversion of available nutrients into biomass, which often involves an increased rate of specific metabolic pathways, such as glycolysis. Surprisingly, however, we observe that aggregating individual gene expression using canonical human metabolic pathways frequently fails to enhance the classification of noncancerous vs. cancerous tissues and in the task of predicting cancer patient survival. This supports the notion that metabolic alterations in cancer rewire cellular metabolism through unconventional pathways. Here we introduce a novel algorithm (MCF) that aims to identify these cancer-mediated ‘composite’ metabolic pathways by identifying those that best differentiate between cancerous vs. non-cancerous tissues gene expression. Remarkably, MCF successfully builds robust classifiers integrating different datasets of the same cancer type. We further show that the data-driven pathways identified by MCF, in contrast to the canonical literature-based pathways, successfully generate clinically relevant features that are predictive of breast cancer patients’ survival in an independent dataset. Our findings thus suggest that cancer metabolism may be rewired via non-standard composite pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noam Auslander
- Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology and the Department of Computer Science, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail: (NA); (ER)
| | - Allon Wagner
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science and the Center for Computational Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Matthew Oberhardt
- Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology and the Department of Computer Science, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Eytan Ruppin
- Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology and the Department of Computer Science, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
- The Blavatnik School of Computer Science and the Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- * E-mail: (NA); (ER)
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4
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Delivery of RNAi Therapeutics to the Airways-From Bench to Bedside. Molecules 2016; 21:molecules21091249. [PMID: 27657028 PMCID: PMC6272875 DOI: 10.3390/molecules21091249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2016] [Revised: 09/05/2016] [Accepted: 09/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
RNA interference (RNAi) is a potent and specific post-transcriptional gene silencing process. Since its discovery, tremendous efforts have been made to translate RNAi technology into therapeutic applications for the treatment of different human diseases including respiratory diseases, by manipulating the expression of disease-associated gene(s). Similar to other nucleic acid-based therapeutics, the major hurdle of RNAi therapy is delivery. Pulmonary delivery is a promising approach of delivering RNAi therapeutics directly to the airways for treating local conditions and minimizing systemic side effects. It is a non-invasive route of administration that is generally well accepted by patients. However, pulmonary drug delivery is a challenge as the lungs pose a series of anatomical, physiological and immunological barriers to drug delivery. Understanding these barriers is essential for the development an effective RNA delivery system. In this review, the different barriers to pulmonary drug delivery are introduced. The potential of RNAi molecules as new class of therapeutics, and the latest preclinical and clinical studies of using RNAi therapeutics in different respiratory conditions are discussed in details. We hope this review can provide some useful insights for moving inhaled RNAi therapeutics from bench to bedside.
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Ruigrok MJR, Frijlink HW, Hinrichs WLJ. Pulmonary administration of small interfering RNA: The route to go? J Control Release 2016; 235:14-23. [PMID: 27235976 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2016.05.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2016] [Revised: 05/23/2016] [Accepted: 05/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Ever since the discovery of RNA interference (RNAi), which is a post-transcriptional gene silencing mechanism, researchers have been studying the therapeutic potential of using small interfering RNA (siRNA) to treat diseases that are characterized by excessive gene expression. Excessive gene expression can be particularly harmful if it occurs in a vulnerable organ such as the lungs as they are essential for physiological respiration. Consequently, RNAi could offer an approach to treat such lung diseases. Parenteral administration of siRNA has been shown to be difficult due to degradation by nucleases in the systemic circulation and excretion by the kidneys. To avoid these issues and to achieve local delivery and local effects, pulmonary administration has been proposed as an alternative administration route. Regarding this application, various animal studies have been conducted over the past few years. Therefore, this review presents a critical analysis of publications where pulmonary administration of siRNA in animals has been reported. Such an analysis is necessary to determine the feasibility of this administration route and to define directions for future research. First, we provide background information on lungs, pulmonary administration, and delivery vectors. Thereafter, we present and discuss relevant animal studies. Though nearly all publications reported positive outcomes, several reoccurring challenges were identified. They relate to 1) the necessity, efficacy, and safety of delivery vectors, 2) the biodistribution of siRNA in tissues other than the lungs, 3) the poor correlation between in vitro and in vivo models, and 4) the long-term effects upon (repeated) administration of siRNA. Finally, we present recommendations for future research to define the route to go: towards safer and more effective pulmonary administration of siRNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J R Ruigrok
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - H W Frijlink
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - W L J Hinrichs
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
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Youngren-Ortiz SR, Gandhi NS, España-Serrano L, Chougule MB. Aerosol Delivery of siRNA to the Lungs. Part 2: Nanocarrier-based Delivery Systems. KONA : POWDER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN JAPAN 2016; 34:44-69. [PMID: 28392618 PMCID: PMC5381822 DOI: 10.14356/kona.2017005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
In this article, applications of engineered nanoparticles containing siRNA for inhalation delivery are reviewed and discussed. Diseases with identified protein malfunctions may be mitigated through the use of well-designed siRNA therapeutics. The inhalation route of administration provides local delivery of siRNA therapeutics to the lungs for various pulmonary diseases. A siRNA delivery system can be used to overcome the barriers of pulmonary delivery, such as anatomical barriers, mucociliary clearance, cough clearance, and alveolar macrophage clearance. Apart from naked siRNA aerosol delivery, previously studied siRNA carrier systems include those of lipidic, polymeric, peptide, or inorganic origin. These delivery systems can achieve pulmonary delivery through the generation of an aerosol via an inhaler or nebulizer. The preparation methodologies for these siRNA nanocarrier systems will be discussed herein. The use of inhalable nanocarrier siRNA delivery systems have barriers to their effective delivery, but overcoming these constraints while formulating a safe and effective delivery system will offer unique advances to the field of inhaled medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne R. Youngren-Ortiz
- Translational Drug Delivery Research (TransDDR) Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The Daniel K. Inouye College of Pharmacy, University of Hawaii at Hilo, 200 West Kawili Street, Hilo, Hawaii 96720, USA
| | - Nishant S. Gandhi
- Translational Drug Delivery Research (TransDDR) Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The Daniel K. Inouye College of Pharmacy, University of Hawaii at Hilo, 200 West Kawili Street, Hilo, Hawaii 96720, USA
| | - Laura España-Serrano
- Translational Drug Delivery Research (TransDDR) Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The Daniel K. Inouye College of Pharmacy, University of Hawaii at Hilo, 200 West Kawili Street, Hilo, Hawaii 96720, USA
| | - Mahavir B. Chougule
- Translational Drug Delivery Research (TransDDR) Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The Daniel K. Inouye College of Pharmacy, University of Hawaii at Hilo, 200 West Kawili Street, Hilo, Hawaii 96720, USA
- Natural Products and Experimental Therapeutics Program, The Cancer Research Center, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii 96813, USA
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Zhou H, Wei J, Dai Q, Wang L, Luo J, Cheang T, Wang S. CaCO₃/CaIP₆ composite nanoparticles effectively deliver AKT1 small interfering RNA to inhibit human breast cancer growth. Int J Nanomedicine 2015; 10:4255-66. [PMID: 26170662 PMCID: PMC4494612 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s73269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated gene therapy is a promising strategy to temporarily inhibit the expression of genes involved in development of breast cancer. The lack of a safe and efficient gene delivery system has become a major hurdle for siRNA-mediated gene therapy in breast cancer. Our previous studies have demonstrated that inorganic amorphous calcium carbonate (ACC) hybrid nanospheres functionalized with CaIP6 (ACC/CaIP6) nanoparticles are an efficient nucleic acid delivery tool. The present study aimed to evaluate the safety and efficiency of ACC/CaIP6 in delivering siRNA targeting AKT1 (siAKT1) for the treatment of breast cancer. Methods The cytotoxicity of the ACC/CaIP6 nanoparticles was evaluated using a tetrazolium assay. The transfection efficiency and intracellular distribution of ACC/siAKT1 were analyzed by flow cytometry and confocal laser scanning microscopy, respectively. A series of in vitro and in vivo assays was performed to evaluate the effects of ACC/CaIP6/siAKT1 on growth of breast cancer cells. Results ACC/CaIP6 nanoparticles effectively transfected cells with little or no toxicity. AKT1 knockdown by ACC/CaIP6/siAKT1 inhibited cell cycle progression and promoted apoptosis of MCF-7 cells. Intratumoral injection of ACC/CaIP6/siAKT1 significantly suppressed the growth of breast cancer in mice. Conclusion ACC/CaIP6 nanoparticles are a safe and efficient method of delivering siRNA for gene therapy in breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongyan Zhou
- Department of Neurological Intensive Care Unit, First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinhuan Wei
- Department of Urology, First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiangsheng Dai
- Department of Oncology, First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Liping Wang
- Department of Breast Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Junhang Luo
- Department of Urology, First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Tuckyun Cheang
- Department of Breast Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Shenming Wang
- Department of Breast Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
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Fujita Y, Kuwano K, Ochiya T. Development of small RNA delivery systems for lung cancer therapy. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:5254-70. [PMID: 25756380 PMCID: PMC4394474 DOI: 10.3390/ijms16035254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2015] [Revised: 02/27/2015] [Accepted: 03/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
RNA interference (RNAi) has emerged as a powerful tool for studying target identification and holds promise for the development of therapeutic gene silencing. Recent advances in RNAi delivery and target selection provide remarkable opportunities for translational medical research. The induction of RNAi relies on small silencing RNAs, which affect specific messenger RNA (mRNA) degradation. Two types of small RNA molecules, small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs), have a central function in RNAi technology. The success of RNAi-based therapeutic delivery may be dependent upon uncovering a delivery route, sophisticated delivery carriers, and nucleic acid modifications. Lung cancer is still the leading cause of cancer death worldwide, for which novel therapeutic strategies are critically needed. Recently, we have reported a novel platform (PnkRNA™ and nkRNA®) to promote naked RNAi approaches through inhalation without delivery vehicles in lung cancer xenograft models. We suggest that a new class of RNAi therapeutic agent and local drug delivery system could also offer a promising RNAi-based strategy for clinical applications in cancer therapy. In this article, we show recent strategies for an RNAi delivery system and suggest the possible clinical usefulness of RNAi-based therapeutics for lung cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Fujita
- Division of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, National Cancer Center Research Institute, Tokyo 104-0045, Japan.
- Division of Respiratory Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo 105-8461, Japan.
| | - Kazuyoshi Kuwano
- Division of Respiratory Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo 105-8461, Japan.
| | - Takahiro Ochiya
- Division of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, National Cancer Center Research Institute, Tokyo 104-0045, Japan.
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Merkel OM, Rubinstein I, Kissel T. siRNA delivery to the lung: what's new? Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2014; 75:112-28. [PMID: 24907426 PMCID: PMC4160355 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2014.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2014] [Revised: 05/22/2014] [Accepted: 05/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
RNA interference (RNAi) has been thought of as the general answer to many unmet medical needs. After the first success stories, it soon became obvious that short interfering RNA (siRNA) is not suitable for systemic administration due to its poor pharmacokinetics. Therefore local administration routes have been adopted for more successful in vivo RNAi. This paper reviews nucleic acid modifications, nanocarrier chemistry, animal models used in successful pulmonary siRNA delivery, as well as clinical translation approaches. We summarize what has been published recently and conclude with the potential problems that may still hamper the efficient clinical application of RNAi in the lung.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia M Merkel
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201, USA; Department of Oncology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48201, USA.
| | - Israel Rubinstein
- College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; Jesse Brown VA Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Thomas Kissel
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmacy, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Ketzerbach 63, 35037 Marburg, Germany
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Elsayed M, Corrand V, Kolhatkar V, Xie Y, Kim NH, Kolhatkar R, Merkel OM. Influence of oligospermines architecture on their suitability for siRNA delivery. Biomacromolecules 2014; 15:1299-310. [PMID: 24552396 PMCID: PMC3993926 DOI: 10.1021/bm401849d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Spermines are naturally abundant
polyamines that partially condense
nucleic acids and exhibit the proton-sponge effect in an acidic environment.
However, spermines show a limited efficiency for transfecting nucleic
acids because of their low molecular weight. Therefore, spermines
need to be modified to be used as nonviral vectors for nucleic acids.
Here, we synthesized linear bisspermine as well as a linear and dendritic
tetraspermine with different molecular architectures. These oligospermines
were self-assembled into polyplexes with siRNA. The structure–activity
relationship of the oligospermines was evaluated in terms of their
efficiency for delivering siRNA into a nonsmall cell lung carcinoma
cell line. Oligospermines displayed minimal cytotoxicity but efficient
siRNA condensation and showed better stability against polyanions
than polyethylenimine. The morphology of the polyplexes was strongly
affected by the oligospermine architecture. Linear tetraspermine/siRNA
polyplexes showed the best gene-silencing efficiency among the oligospermines
tested at both the mRNA and protein expression levels, indicating
the most favorable structure for siRNA delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maha Elsayed
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Eugene Applebaum College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Wayne State University , 259 Mack Avenue, Detroit, Michigan 48201, United States
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