Evaluation of Antimalarial Activity of Hydromethanolic Crude Extract and Solvent Fractions of the Leaves of Nuxia congesta R. Br. Ex Fresen (Buddlejaceae) in Plasmodium berghei Infected Mice

Efficacy of Albizia malacophylla (A.Rich.) Walp. (Leguminosae) methanol (80%) leaf extract and solvent fractions against Plasmodium berghei-induced malaria in mice model

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Novel drugs are needed to address the issue of malarial infection resistance; natural items can be a different source of these medications. Albizia malacophylla (A. Rich.) Walp. (Leguminosae) is listed as one of the antimalarial medicinal plants in Ethiopian folk medicine. However, there are no reports regarding the biological activity or phytochemistry of the plant.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the A. malacophylla crude extract and solvent fractions' in vivo antimalarial activity utilizing 4-day suppressive, preventative, and curative tests in mice infected with P. berghei.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The parasite Plasmodium berghei, which causes rodent malaria, was used to infect healthy male Swiss Albino mice, weighing 23-28 g and aged 6-8 weeks. Solvent fractions such as methanol, water, and chloroform were given in addition to an 80% methanolic extract at 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg doses. A Conventional test such as parasitemia, survival time, body weight, temperature, and packed cell capacity were employed to ascertain factors such as the suppressive, curative, and preventive tests.

RESULTS

Every test substance dramatically reduced the number of parasites in every experiment. Crude extract (with the highest percentage suppression of 67.78%) performs better antimalarial effect than the methanol fraction, which is the most efficient solvent fraction with a percentage suppression of 55.74%. With a suppression value of 64.83% parasitemia level, the therapeutic effects of 80% methanolic crude extract were greater than its curative and preventative effects in a four-day suppressive test. The survival period (17 days) was longer with the hydroalcoholic crude extract dose of 400 mg/kg than with other doses of the materials under investigation.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this investigation validate the antimalarial characteristics of A. malacophylla leaf extract. The crude extract prevented weight loss, a decline in temperature, and a reduction in PCV. The results demonstrate that the plant has a promising antimalarial effect against P. berghei, hence supporting the traditional use of the plant. Therefore, it could serve as a foundation for the development of new antimalarial drugs.

In vivo antimalarial effect of 1-hydroxy-5,6,7-trimethoxyxanthone isolated from Mammea siamensis T. Anders. flowers: pharmacokinetic and acute toxicity studies

BACKGROUND

The potent antiplasmodial activity of 1-hydroxy-5,6,7-trimethoxyxanthone (HTX), isolated from Mammea siamensis T. Anders. flowers, has previously been demonstrated in vitro. However, its in vivo activity has not been reported. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the antimalarial activity and acute toxicity of HTX in a mouse model and to evaluate the pharmacokinetic profile of HTX following a single intraperitoneal administration.

METHODS

The in vivo antimalarial activity of HTX was evaluated using a 4-day suppressive test. Mice were intraperitoneally injected with Plasmodium berghei ANKA strain and given HTX daily for 4 days. To detect acute toxicity, mice received a single dose of HTX and were observed for 14 days. Additionally, the biochemical parameters of the liver and kidney functions as well as the histopathology of liver and kidney tissues were examined. HTX pharmacokinetics after intraperitoneal administration was also investigated in a mouse model. Liquid chromatography triple quadrupole mass spectrometry was used to quantify plasma HTX and calculate pharmacokinetic parameters with the PKSolver software.

RESULTS

HTX at 10 mg/kg body weight significantly suppressed parasitemia in malaria-infected mice by 74.26%. Mice treated with 3 mg/kg HTX showed 46.88% suppression, whereas mice treated with 1 mg/kg displayed 34.56% suppression. Additionally, no symptoms of acute toxicity were observed in the HTX-treated groups. There were no significant alterations in the biochemical parameters of the liver and kidney functions and no histological changes in liver or kidney tissues. Following intraperitoneal HTX administration, the pharmacokinetic profile exhibited a maximum concentration (Cmax) of 94.02 ng/mL, time to attain Cmax (Tmax) of 0.5 h, mean resident time of 14.80 h, and elimination half-life of 13.88 h.

CONCLUSIONS

HTX has in vivo antimalarial properties against P. berghei infection. Acute toxicity studies of HTX did not show behavioral changes or mortality. The median lethal dose was greater than 50 mg/kg body weight. Pharmacokinetic studies showed that HTX has a long elimination half-life; hence, shortening the duration of malaria treatment may be required to minimize toxicity.

Medicinal Plants Used by Oromo Community in Kofale District, West-Arsi Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to record the utilization of medicinal plants by the Oromo people in the Kofale District, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia, to control human and animal health problems.

Methods

Data regarding the use of medicinal plants were collected using ethnobotanical methods from 84 traditional medicine practitioners and 304 general informants sampled employing purposive and systematic random sampling methods, respectively, in the Kofale District. Data were analyzed using different indices, including a preference ranking exercise, informant consensus factor (ICF), fidelity level (FL) and relative popularity level (RPL).

Results

In the district, 106 medicinal plants were claimed to be used for the treatment of 43 human and 18 livestock illnesses, of which 75 (71%) were used to manage human health problems, 23 (21.5%) were used to treat both human and livestock ailments and eight (7.5%) were utilized to treat manage livestock health problems. Most (76.4%) plants were harvested from the wild. Leaves were the most commonly used plant part (55.6%) in remedy preparations. Skin diseases scored the highest ICF value (0.97), followed by gastrointestinal disorders (ICF = 0.95), cancer (ICF = 0.93), and hemorrhoids (ICF = 0.91). Medicinal plants that record the highest fidelity level (FL) (100%) and rank order priority (ROP) (100%) values included Justicia schimperiana, Embelia schimperi, Ekebergia capensis and Datura stramonium, which have been used to treat liver disorders, tapeworm infections, babesiosis, and rabies, respectively. There were significant differences (p<0.05) in the mean numbers of medicinal plants claimed by different social groups: older, illiterate, and traditional medicine practitioners reported higher mean numbers of medicinal plants than younger, literate, and general informants, respectively.

Conclusion

This study indicated the richness of medicinal plant species in Kofale District. Medicinal plants with the highest FL and ROP values and those used to treat disease categories with the highest ICF values should be prioritized in future phytochemical and pharmacological investigations.

Antimalarial efficacy and toxicological assessment of medicinal plant ingredients of Prabchompoothaweep remedy as a candidate for antimalarial drug development

BACKGROUND

Drug resistance exists in almost all antimalarial drugs currently in use, leading to an urgent need to identify new antimalarial drugs. Medicinal plant use is an alternative approach to antimalarial chemotherapy. This study aimed to explore potent medicinal plants from Prabchompoothaweep remedy for antimalarial drug development.

METHODS

Forty-eight crude extracts from Prabchompoothaweep remedy and its 23 plants ingredients were investigated in vitro for antimalarial properties using Plasmodium lactate dehydrogenase (pLDH) enzyme against Plasmodium falciparum K1 strain and toxicity effects were evaluated in Vero cells. The plant with promising antimalarial activity was further investigated using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to identify phytochemicals. Antimalarial activity in mice was evaluated using a four-day suppressive test against Plasmodium berghei ANKA at dose of 200, 400, and 600 mg/kg body weight, and acute toxicity was analyzed.

RESULTS

Of the 48 crude extracts, 13 (27.08%) showed high antimalarial activity against the K1 strain of P. falciparum (IC₅₀ <  10 μg/ml) and 9 extracts (18.75%) were moderately active (IC₅₀ = 11-50 μg/ml). Additionally, the ethanolic extract of Prabchompoothaweep remedy showed moderate antimalarial activity against the K1 strain of P. falciparum (IC₅₀ = 14.13 μg/ml). Based on in vitro antimalarial and toxicity results, antimalarial activity of the aqueous fruit extract of Terminalia arjuna (IC₅₀ = 4.05 μg/ml and CC₅₀ = 219.6 μg/ml) was further studied in mice. GC-MS analysis of T. arjuna extract identified 22 compounds. The most abundant compounds were pyrogallol, gallic acid, shikimic acid, oleamide, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, 1,1-diethoxy-ethane, quinic acid, and furfural. Analysis of the four-day suppressive test indicated that T. arjuna extract at dose of 200, 400, and 600 mg/kg body weight significantly suppressed the Plasmodium parasites by 28.33, 45.77, and 67.95%, respectively. In the acute toxicity study, T. arjuna extract was non-toxic at 2000 mg/kg body weight.

CONCLUSIONS

The aqueous fruit extract of T. arjuna exerts antimalarial activity against Plasmodium parasites found in humans (P. falciparum K1) and mice (P. berghei ANKA). Acute toxicity studies showed that T. arjuna extract did not show any lethality or adverse effects up to a dose of 2000 mg/kg.

Antibacterial Activity Against Multidrug-Resistant Clinical Isolates of Nine Plants from Chencha, Southern Ethiopia

Background

The diminishing efficacy of antibiotics currently in use and the emergence of multidrug-resistant bacteria pose a grave threat to public health worldwide. Hence, new classes of antimicrobials are urgently required, and the search is continuing.

Methods

Nine plants were chosen for the current work, which are collected from the highlands of Chencha, Ethiopia. Plant extracts containing secondary metabolites in various organic solvents were checked for antibacterial activity against type culture bacterial pathogens and MDR clinical isolates. The broth dilution technique was used to evaluate the minimum inhibitory and minimum bactericidal concentrations of highly active plant extracts, and time-kill kinetic and cytotoxic assays were performed using the most active plant extract.

Results

Two plants (C. asiatica and S. marianum) were highly active against ATCC isolates. The EtOAc extract of C. asiatica produced the highest zone of inhibition ranging between 18.2±0.8-20.7±0.7 and 16.1±0.4-19.2±1.4 mm against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, respectively. The EtOH extract of S. marianum displayed zones of inhibition in the range of 19.9±1.4-20.5±0.7 mm against the type culture bacteria. The EtOAc extract of C. asiatica effectively curbed the growth of six MDR clinical isolates. The MIC values of C. asiatica against the Gram-negative bacteria tested were 2.5 mg/mL, whereas the corresponding MBC values were 5 mg/mL in each case. The MIC and MBC values were the lowest in the case of Gram-positive bacteria, ie, 0.65 and 1.25 mg/mL, respectively. A time-kill assay showed the inhibition of MRSA at 4 × MIC and 8 × MIC within 2 hours of incubation. The 24 h LD₅₀ values of C. asiatica and S. marianum corresponding to Artemia salina were 3.05 and 2.75 mg/mL, respectively.

Conclusion

Overall results substantiate the inclusion of C. asiatica and S. marianum as antibacterial agents in traditional medicines.

Evaluation of Antimalarial Activity of Ethanolic Extract of Annona muricata L.: An in vivo and an in silico Approach

In Nigeria, Annona muricata L. has been used to treat a variety of ailments. The mechanism of the antimalarial activity of ethanolic leaf extract of Annona muricata (EEAML) was investigated using both an in vivo and an in silico approach. The experimental mice were divided into five groups: A-F. The mice in groups B-F were inoculated with Plasmodium berghei NK-65 and treated accordingly. Groups A and B are the negative and positive controls (infected and untreated), respectively. Group C received 10 mg/kg chloroquine (standard drug), whereas groups D-F received 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg body weight of the extract orally respectively. The mice were euthanized eight days after infection, and their liver and blood were collected and used in biochemical tests. Molecular docking was performed using the extract's HPLC compounds and Plasmodium falciparum proteins. In the suppressive, prophylactic, and curative tests, there was a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in parasitemia levels in groups treated with the extract compared to the positive control and standard drug. When compared to the positive control, there was a significant (p < 0.05) reduction in liver MDA, total cholesterol, and total triglyceride levels. The binding energies of luteolin and apigenin-pfprotein complexes were significantly (p < 0.05) higher compared to their respective references. The anti-plasmodial activity of the extract may result from its hypolipidemic effect, which deprives the parasite of essential lipid molecules needed for parasite growth, as well as from the inhibitory effects of apigenin and luteolin on specific proteins required for the Plasmodium metabolic pathway.

Antimalarial activity of the hydroalcoholic crude extract and solvent fractions of Commelina latifolia Hochst. ex C.B.Clarke (Commelinaceae) leaves against Plasmodium berghei in mice

Ethnopharmacological relevance

In Ethiopia, the indigenous medicinal plant Commelina latifolia Hochst. ex C.B. Clarke leaves are used to treat malaria and wounds.

Aim of the study

In this work, the antiplasmodial activity of Commelina latifolia crude leaf extract and solvent fractions against Plasmodium berghei-infected mice was investigated.

Materials and methods

80% methanol was used to extract the leaves of C. latifolia, and the crude extract was fractionated using chloroform, pure methanol, and distilled water. All test compounds were undergone an acute oral toxicity test before being put through Peter's 4-day suppressive test to see if they have antiplasmodial activity. The hydroalcoholic crude extract and chloroform fraction were additionally assessed for antimalarial activity using curative and prophylactic tests in P. berghei-infected laboratory mice.

Results

All of the tested crude extracts were safe at a dose of 2000 mg/kg. At 400 mg/kg dose both the 80% methanol extract and chloroform fraction exhibited antimalarial activity with parasitemia suppression values of 86.31%, and 76.56% in the four-day suppressive test, 81.97% and 72.05% in Rane's test, and 69.05% and 62.88% in the prophylactic test, respectively.

Conclusion

Collectively, the oral dose of Commelina latifolia is safe, and reveals promising antimalarial activity. The findings backed up the utilization of the plant in traditional medicine to treat malaria.

Suppressive, Curative, and Prophylactic Effects of Maesa lanceolata Forssk. against Rodent Malaria Parasite Plasmodium berghei

The artemisinin partial resistance is believed to be spread to artemisinin-based combination therapy partner drugs. As a result, new antiplasmodial compounds are required to treat resistant malaria infections. In the invention of antimalarial substances, claimed medical plants are precious resources. So, the current study was designed to assess the antiplasmodial effects of Maesa lanceolata in mice. In this study, preliminary phytoconstituent and in vivo acute oral toxicity tests were done. Early infection, established infection, and residual infection tests were employed to determine the antimalarial effects of the test drugs. Three doses (200, 400, and 600 mg/kg) of the extracts were provided orally to the test mice. Analysis of variance (one-way) followed by post hoc Tukey's test was used to analyze the difference between and within groups. Terpenoids, tannins, saponins, flavonoids, and alkaloids were detected in the phytochemical constituent analysis. Both 80% methanolic crude extract and solvent fractions had no toxic result at the 2000 mg/kg dose. All test drug doses suppressed parasite levels in a significant manner at all tests. The activity of chloroform fraction (maximum percentage suppression, 81.28%) overwhelms the crude extract activity. The curative effects of 80% methanolic crude extract, with a maximum of 80.22% parasitemia suppression, were greater than its suppressive and prophylactic effects. The 400 mg/kg dose of chloroform fraction resulted in a maximum survival period (18 days) than other doses of tested materials. The results of this investigation provide support for the activity of M. lanceolata leaf extract against malaria.

Studies on Activities and Chemical Characterization of Medicinal Plants in Search for New Antimalarials: A Ten Year Review on Ethnopharmacology

Malaria is an endemic disease that affected 229 million people and caused 409 thousand deaths, in 2019. Disease control is based on early diagnosis and specific treatment with antimalarial drugs since no effective vaccines are commercially available to prevent the disease. Drug chemotherapy has a strong historical link to the use of traditional plant infusions and other natural products in various cultures. The research based on such knowledge has yielded two drugs in medicine: the alkaloid quinine from Cinchona species, native in the Amazon highland rain forest in South America, and artemisinin from Artemisia annua, a species from the millenary Chinese medicine. The artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs), proven to be highly effective against malaria parasites, and considered as “the last bullet to fight drug-resistant malaria parasites,” have limited use now due to the emergence of multidrug resistance. In addition, the limited number of therapeutic options makes urgent the development of new antimalarial drugs. This review focuses on the antimalarial activities of 90 plant species obtained from a search using Pubmed database with keywords “antimalarials,” “plants” and “natural products.” We selected only papers published in the last 10 years (2011–2020), with a further analysis of those which were tested experimentally in malaria infected mice. Most plant species studied were from the African continent, followed by Asia and South America; their antimalarial activities were evaluated against asexual blood parasites, and only one species was evaluated for transmission blocking activity. Only a few compounds isolated from these plants were active and had their mechanisms of action delineated, thereby limiting the contribution of these medicinal plants as sources of novel antimalarial pharmacophores, which are highly necessary for the development of effective drugs. Nevertheless, the search for bioactive compounds remains as a promising strategy for the development of new antimalarials and the validation of traditional treatments against malaria. One species native in South America, Ampelozyzyphus amazonicus, and is largely used against human malaria in Brazil has a prophylactic effect, interfering with the viability of sporozoites in in vitro and in vivo experiments.

Antiplasmodial Activity of the Crude Extract and Solvent Fractions of Stem Barks of Gardenia ternifolia in Plasmodium berghei-Infected Mice

Background

The evolution of resistance to currently used malaria medicines together with the severe economic burden of malaria initiates the search for novel antimalarial drugs. Thus, the present experiment was intended to assess the in vivo antiplasmodial effect of Gardenia ternifolia based on the traditional claims and in vitro antimalarial effect of the plant.

Methods

For the crude extraction of stem barks of G. ternifolia, a cold maceration method using hydromethanol as a solvent was employed. The hydroalcoholic extract was then fractionated by three solvents (chloroform, n-butanol, and aqueous solvent) with different polarity indexes. Swiss albino mice infected with the chloroquine-sensitive malaria parasite (Plasmodium berghei) were used in this study. Acute oral toxicity study was done according to standard protocols. Four-day suppressive (hydromethanolic crude extract and solvent fractions), Rane's (crude extract), and repository (crude extract) tests were used to examine the antiplasmodial effects of the study plant.

Results

The chemosuppressive study revealed that all doses of the crude extract and its fractions displayed a significant (P < 0.001) inhibition of parasitemia compared with the vehicle (negative control). The crude extract's highest dose (600 mg/kg) showed the maximum (57.84%) parasitemia suppression during the chemosuppressive test. The crude extract also produced significant (P < 0.001) curative and prophylactic effects at all doses in Rane's and repository tests compared with the negative control. In the 4-day test, the n-butanol fraction produced parasitemia suppression higher than the chloroform fraction but lower than the crude extract. Of these, water fractions demonstrated the lowest chemosuppressive effect. Anthraquinone, alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, steroids, tannins, and terpenoids were qualitatively detected in the plant material.

Conclusion

The current results showed that the hydromethanolic extract and fractions of G. ternifolia stem barks have antiplasmodial action with a high curative effect. Chloroform and n-butanol fractions were more active among the fractions, indicating that the nonpolar and semipolar constituents of the plant are responsible for the antimalarial effects.

Evaluation of Antiplasmodial Activity of Hydroalcoholic Crude Extract and Solvent Fractions of Zehneria scabra Roots Against Plasmodium berghei in Swiss Albino Mice

Background

Since drug resistance makes controlling malaria parasites a major challenge, these pioneering researchers explore and discover new novel drugs from a variety of sources. As a result, this study aimed to assess the anti-plasmodial activity of hydroalcoholic crude extract and solvent fractions of Zehneria scabra roots in mice infected with Plasmodium berghei.

Methods

The antimalarial activity and safety profile of Zehneria scabra extracts were tested in a mouse model using four-day suppressive, prophylactic, and rane’s tests against chloroquine-sensitive Plasmodium berghei. Mice were divided into five groups at random: group I received distilled water (10 mL/kg), group II, III, and IV received 200, 400, and 600 mg/kg of the extract, respectively, and group V received chloroquine (25 mg/kg). The antimalarial activity of the extract was determined using parasitemia levels, survival time, rectal temperature, and weight variation.

Results

At all dose levels, the crude extract and solvent fractions of Zehneria scabra showed significant (p<0.05 to p<0.001) chemosuppression, with the crude extract and butanol fraction showing the highest chemosuppression (73.09% and 74.09%, respectively). Apart from suppressing parasitemia, the extract also increased survival time and secured packed cell volume reduction substantially (p<0.05 to p<0.001), while the crude extract had no significant impact on body weight or rectal temperature reduction in four-day suppressive and prophylactic models.

Conclusion

The result designated that Zehneria scabra is endowed with significant antimalarial activity. These results thus support the traditional use of Zehneria scabra, for the treatment of malaria.

Antimalarial properties and molecular docking analysis of compounds from Dioscorea bulbifera L. as new antimalarial agent candidates

Background

At present, the emergence and spread of antimalarial drug resistance has become a significant problem worldwide. There has been a challenge in searching for natural products for the development of novel antimalarial drugs. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate compounds from Dioscorea bulbifera responsible for antimalarial properties and investigate potential interactions of the compounds with Plasmodium falciparum lactate dehydrogenase (PfLDH), an essential glycolytic enzyme in the parasite’s life cycle.

Methods

An in vitro study of antimalarial activity against chloroquine (CQ)-resistant Plasmodium falciparum (K1 strain) and CQ-sensitive P. falciparum (3D7 strain) was performed using the ³H-hypoxanthine uptake inhibition method. The cytotoxic effects of the pure compounds were tested against Vero cells using a 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. The interactions of the compounds with the PfLDH active site were additionally investigated using a molecular docking method.

Results

Quercetin (6) exhibited the highest antimalarial activity against the P. falciparum K1 and 3D7 strains, with IC₅₀ values of 28.47 and 50.99 μM, respectively. 2,4,3′,5′-Tetrahydroxybibenzyl (9), 3,5-dimethoxyquercetin (4) and quercetin-3-O-β-D-galactopyranoside (14) also possessed antimalarial effects against these two strains of P. falciparum. Most pure compounds were nontoxic against Vero cells at a concentration of 80 μg/ml, except for compound 9, which had a cytotoxic effect with a CC₅₀ value of 16.71 μM. The molecular docking results indicated that 9 exhibited the best binding affinity to the PfLDH enzyme in terms of low binding energy (− 8.91 kcal/mol) and formed strong hydrogen bond interactions with GLY29, GLY32, THR97, GLY99, PHE100, THR101 and ASN140, amino acids as active sites. In addition, 6 also possessed remarkable binding affinity (− 8.53 kcal/mol) to PfLDH by interacting with GLY29, ILE31, ASP53, ILE54, THR97 and THR101.

Conclusion

Quercetin is a major active compound responsible for the antimalarial activity of D. bulbifera and is an inhibitor of PfLDH. These findings provide more evidence to support the traditional use of D. bulbifera for malaria treatment. Structural models of its interactions at the PfLDH active site are plausibly useful for the future design of antimalarial agents.

Antioxidant and antimalarial properties of Sophora exigua Craib. root extract in Plasmodium berghei-infected mice

Background

Sophora exigua Craib. is commonly used in Thailand to reduce fever and increase postpartum breast milk production in women who have hypogalactia. However, there has been no report on the antioxidant and antimalarial properties of this plant. This study aimed to investigate the antioxidant and antimalarial activities of S. exigua root extract and to evaluate its acute toxicity in mice to confirm its safety.

Methods

The in vitro antioxidant activities were determined using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), superoxide radical, and hydroxyl radical scavenging assays. The in vivo antioxidant activities were determined by detecting the malondialdehyde (MDA) content and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in the livers of malaria-infected mice. The in vivo antimalarial activity was determined by Peters’ 4-day suppressive test in mice infected with Plasmodium berghei ANKA and orally administered S. exigua root aqueous and ethanolic extracts at different doses (200, 400, and 600 mg/kg body weight). In addition, the acute oral toxicity of the plant extracts was assessed in mice at a dose of 2000 mg/kg body weight.

Results

The ethanolic extract of S. exigua root exhibited inhibition of DPPH radicals, superoxide anions, and hydroxyl radicals, with half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) values of 24.63 ± 1.78, 129.78 ± 0.65, and 30.58 ± 1.19 μg/ml, respectively. Similarly, research on the in vivo antioxidant activity indicated that the ethanolic extract of S. exigua root exerted a stronger effect than the aqueous extract. The aqueous extract at doses of 200, 400, and 600 mg/kg had stronger antimalarial activity than the ethanolic extract. The aqueous extract at 600 mg/kg exhibited 60.46% suppression of parasitemia. Increased levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) were detected in the mice treated with 2000 mg/kg ethanolic extract, which was related to the results of histopathological analysis of liver tissue, showing ballooning degeneration of hepatocytes, diffuse hepatic hemorrhage, and infiltration of inflammatory cells.

Conclusions

This study demonstrated that the ethanolic S. exigua root extract possessed antioxidant properties, and the aqueous extract also had antimalarial activity. Therefore, this plant is an alternative source of new antioxidant and antimalarial agents.