Monitoring and Managing Cardiovascular Risk in Immune Mediated Inflammatory Diseases

Cardiovascular Risk in Rheumatoid Arthritis: Considerations on Assessment and Management

In the context of holistic therapeutic practices, the cardiovascular risk of patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) needs to be addressed as a major factor of compromised disease prognosis and increased mortality. The elevated prevalence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) by more than twofold in RA has been attributed, inter alia, to chronic inflammation exacerbating arterial stiffness, increased onset of hypertension, dyslipidaemia and diabetes mellitus, sedentary lifestyle, and antirheumatic drug complications. CVD risk in RA can be currently assessed by practitioners through accessible adapted calculators, but it remains problematic as their diagnostic accuracy is not superior to calculators designed for the general population. Implementation of guideline-oriented personalised interventions remains the cornerstone for cardiovascular risk management in RA. Remarkably, there is lack of a consortium that brings together different health care providers engaged in the care of patients with RA (e.g., rheumatologists, cardiologists, general practitioners, etc), to guide cardiovascular risk assessment and management. This narrative review aims at providing an overview of current CVD risk assessment and management options, highlighting their pivotal role in the comprehensive treatment of RA patients.

Development and usability evaluation of a culturally adapted stroke prevention educational programme on WeChat apps

Background

The persistently high incidence of stroke in many nations is suggestive of an area for further improvement on existing strategies of primary stroke prevention. Although the era of digitalisation has led to the increasing use of mobile applications (apps) in healthcare, more studies are needed to determine the efficacy of apps in producing the desired health outcomes across different nations and cultures.

Objective

To describe the development and evaluate the usability of a mobile app in delivering a culturally adapted stroke prevention educational programme for middle-aged adults in the Republic of China.

Methods

The educational programme was developed in three phases. In Phase 1, the process involved analysing requirements and designing structured modules. Phase 2 concentrated on expert consultation and technical development to deliver the educational programme. Phase 3 included a usability trial and refinement of the educational program based on trial results.

Results

Educational content was derived from the Chinese Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Stroke and the Dietary Guidelines for Residents. The WeChat platform was used to deliver the educational programme. Participants expressed satisfaction with the content, interface, and functions of the apps, indicating that the apps have good usability.

Conclusions

The development process of the Educational Programme was designed to maximise the culturally appropriate, and impact of lifestyle changes and stroke prevention. An app-based educational programme that has demonstrated good usability is a vital factor prior to deploying it in an intervention to evaluate its effects on health outcomes.

Cardiovascular risk assessment in patients with antiphospholipid syndrome: a cross-sectional performance analysis of nine clinical risk prediction tools

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to assess the performance of cardiovascular risk (CVR) prediction models reported by European Alliance of Associations for Rheumatology and European Society of Cardiology recommendations to identify high-atherosclerotic CVR (ASCVR) patients with antiphospholipid syndrome (APS).

METHODS

Six models predicting the risk of a first cardiovascular disease event (first-CVD) (Systematic Coronary Risk Evaluation (SCORE); modified-SCORE; Framingham risk score; Pooled Cohorts Risk Equation; Prospective Cardiovascular Münster calculator; Globorisk), three risk prediction models for patients with a history of prior arterial events (recurrent-CVD) (adjusted Global APS Score (aGAPSS); aGAPSSCVD; Secondary Manifestations of Arterial Disease (SMART)) and carotid/femoral artery vascular ultrasound (VUS) were used to assess ASCVR in 121 APS patients (mean age: 45.8±11.8 years; women: 68.6%). We cross-sectionally examined the calibration, discrimination and classification accuracy of all prediction models to identify high ASCVR due to VUS-detected atherosclerotic plaques, and risk reclassification of patients classified as non high-risk according to first-CVD/recurrent-CVD tools to actual high risk based on VUS.

RESULTS

Spiegelhalter's z-test p values 0.47-0.57, area under the receiver-operating characteristics curve (AUROC) 0.56-0.75 and Matthews correlation coefficient (MCC) 0.01-0.35 indicated moderate calibration, poor-to-acceptable discrimination and negligible-to-moderate classification accuracy, respectively, for all risk models. Among recurrent-CVD tools, SMART and aGAPSSCVD (for non-triple antiphospholipid antibody-positive patients) performed better (z/AUROC/MCC: 0.47/0.64/0.29 and 0.52/0.69/0.29, respectively) than aGAPSS. VUS reclassified 34.2%-47.9% and 40.5%-52.6% of patients classified as non-high-ASCVR by first-CVD and recurrent-CVD prediction models, respectively. In patients aged 40-54 years, >40% VUS-guided reclassification was observed for first-CVD risk tools and >50% for recurrent-CVD prediction models.

CONCLUSION

Clinical CVR prediction tools underestimate actual high ASCVR in APS. VUS may help to improve CVR assessment and optimal risk factor management.

Venous and arterial thromboembolic risk of Janus kinase inhibitors: a systematic review with meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

Preliminary data led licencing authorities to alert clinicians of an increased venous thrombotic risk associated to the use of Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitors (JAKi). We performed a systematic review to estimate the risk of venous and arterial thrombosis associated to JAKi for the treatment of immune-mediated inflammatory diseases (IMIDs).

METHODS

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) on JAKi in patients with IMIDs were identified by the MEDLINE and EMBASE databases until October 2021. Risk of bias was assessed according to Cochrane criteria. The beta-binomial model was applied to calculate pooled odds ratio (OR) and corresponding 95% CI. The PROSPERO registration number is CRD42022324143.

RESULTS

We have included one phase I, 21 phase II, three phase II-III and 36 phase III RCTs for a total of 19 443 patients in the JAKi group and 6354 in the control group. Thirty-one (unweighted rate 0.16%; 95% CI: 0.10, 0.21) events were reported in the JAKi group and 20 (unweighted rate 0.22%; 95% CI: 0.12, 0.32) in the control group in a mean follow-up of 16.8 weeks. IMID patients treated with JAKi did not have an increased thromboembolic risk compared with those treated with placebo (OR 0.82; 95% CI: 0.43, 1.56). No statistically different results were seen in subanalyses for each investigated IMID, drug and dosage.

CONCLUSION

JAKi do not increase thromboembolic risk compared with placebo in IMID patients enrolled in selected RCTs.

Circulating levels of galectin-3 and coronary microvascular perfusion in rheumatoid arthritis patients with suppressed inflammation

OBJECTIVE

Cardiovascular manifestations are the leading cause of mortality in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Galectin-3, a lectin protein with major role in cellular, inflammatory, and fibrotic processes, has been introduced as a novel cardiac biomarker. We hypothesized that patients with RA present increased levels of galectin-3, and investigated potential associations with arterial stiffness and coronary microvascular dysfunction.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study enrolled RA patients and non-RA individuals without cardiovascular comorbidities. Galectin-3 and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) were measured with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in serum samples. Subendocardial viability ratio (SEVR), an index of microvascular myocardial perfusion, and pulse wave velocity (PWV), the gold-standard measure of vascular stiffness, were estimated with applanation tonometry.

RESULTS

Cardiovascular risk factors and hsCRP were comparable between patients (n = 24) and controls (n = 24). However, galectin-3 was increased [6.9 (6.7) vs 4.6 (4.7)] ng/dl, p = 0.015], and coronary microvascular perfusion was decreased (142.6 ± 22.8 vs 159.7 ± 23.2%, p = 0.028) in RA patients compared to controls, whereas PWV did not significantly differ. Galectin-3 correlated with both PWV and SEVR in univariate analysis. However, after adjustment for cardiovascular risk factors and subclinical inflammation, these associations were rendered non-significant.

CONCLUSION

Galectin-3 appears increased in RA, even among patients with suppressed inflammation in the absence of cardiovascular comorbidities. The observed association of galectin-3 with coronary microvascular perfusion in our study was non-significant after adjustment for cardiovascular risk factors and inflammation. The potential role of galectin-3 as a cardiac biomarker in RA warrants further investigation. Key Points • Galectin-3 has emerged as a novel cardiac biomarker but remains understudied in RA. • Patients with RA present elevated levels of galectin-3 and impaired coronary microvascular perfusion compared to non-RA individuals. • These differences were observed in patients with suppressed inflammation, even in the absence of CVD. • The association of galectin-3 with coronary microvascular impairment in RA warrants further investigation.

Overview of Rheumatoid Arthritis and Scientific Understanding of the Disease

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA), a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disorder, is characterised by persistent synovial inflammation, erosion of bones and cartilage, leading to joint destruction. Clinical manifestations are morning stiffness, pain in shoulder, neck and pelvic girdle, loss of mobility with fever, fatigue, malaise, loss of body weight, and development of rheumatoid nodules. Environmental and genetic factors are important contributors in its susceptibility. Association between RA and diet, cigarette smoking, hormones, alcohol, microbiota, infection, and coffee have also been reported. To diagnose patients with RA, American college of rheumatology (ACR, 2010) criteria, developed by European league against rheumatism (EULAR). Inflammation produced in RA patients is due to cell-mediated immune response. The rheumatoid synovium consists of a large number of CD4+ T cells suggesting pathogenic nature of T cells in this disorder. B-cells may also participate in the pathogenesis by several means such as autoantibodies, by instigation of T-cells through expression of co-stimulatory molecules, by generating pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines and by organisation of other inflammatory cells. The conventional management of RA usually focuses over reducing pain and limiting the disability by medical therapies which include a number of classes of agents such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), non-biological and biological agents, disease-modifying anti rheumatic drugs (DMARDs), immunosuppressants, and corticosteroids. However, only proper rehabilitation can promote the objective to achieve the joint functionality and ease of motion which improves independence as well as quality of life in patient suffering from Rheumatoid Arthritis.

The behavioural epidemiology of sedentary behaviour in inflammatory arthritis: where are we, and where do we need to go?

In the last decade, studies into sedentary behaviour in inflammatory arthritis have raised important questions regarding its role in this condition. Specifically, evidence is needed on whether sedentary behaviour might exacerbate adverse inflammatory arthritis outcomes, and whether reducing sedentary behaviour might offer an effective avenue for self-management in this population. Research exploring these important research questions is still very much in its infancy and lacks the direction and scientific rigour required to inform effective intervention design, delivery and evaluation. Behavioural epidemiology refers to research that aims explicitly to understand and influence health behaviour patterns to prevent disease and improve health. To this end, the Behavioural Epidemiology Framework specifies a focused approach to health behaviour research, which leads to the development of evidence-based interventions directed at specific populations. In this review, we introduce the Behavioural Epidemiology Framework in the context of research into sedentary behaviour in inflammatory arthritis and ask: where are we, and where do we need to go?

Cardiovascular and disease-related features associated with extra-articular manifestations in axial spondyloarthritis. A multicenter study of 888 patients

OBJECTIVES

To determine the potential impact of extra-articular manifestations (EAMs) on disease characteristics and cardiovascular (CV) risk in patients with axial spondylarthritis (axSpA).

METHODS

This is a cross-sectional study from the AtheSpAin cohort, a Spanish multicenter cohort to study atherosclerosis in axSpA. Data on the history of CV events, subclinical carotid atherosclerosis, and disease-related features, including EAMs, were collected.

RESULTS

888 axSpA patients were recruited. Concomitant acute anterior uveitis (AAU), psoriasis (PSO), and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) were present in 177 (19.9%), 96 (10.8%), and 57 (6.4%) patients, respectively. When compared with axSpA patients without EAMs, a significant increase in past CV events was observed in patients with PSO (9% versus 4%, p = 0.048) and in those with at least one EAM (7% versus 4%, p = 0.032) or with more than one EAM (11% versus 4%, p = 0.022). The frequency of carotid plaques and the values of cIMT were higher in patients with EAMs than in those without EAMs, although only the univariable analysis for carotid plaques in patients with PSO (39% versus 30%, p = 0.038) and for cIMT in patients with AAU (665 ± 156 µm versus 637 ± 139 µm, p = 0.042) and those with at least one EAM (661 ± 155 µm versus 637 ± 139 µm, p = 0.024) showed significant results. In addition, patients with PSO or IBD were found to have specific disease-related features, such as higher ESR at diagnosis, and more frequent use of glucocorticoids and TNF inhibitors than those without EAMs. Also, PSO patients had more commonly peripheral involvement and those with AAU more severe radiographic damage than those without EAMs. The frequency of HLA B27 was higher in patients with AAU and lower in those with PSO or IBD compared to those without EAMs.

CONCLUSION

Patients with axSpA and EAMs, in addition to displaying their own disease-related features, are likely to have an increased CV risk that appears proportional to the number of EAMs and could be related to proatherogenic factors other than traditional CV risk factors, such as the inflammatory load and the use of glucocorticoids.

Nailfold Videocapillaroscopy for the Evaluation of Peripheral Microangiopathy in Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic and refractory autoimmune joint disease that affects multiple organs. Several methods have been applied for the study of microvascular endothelial dysfunction, which is considered an important component of vascular disease in RA. Implementation of nailfold videocapillaroscopy (NVC) represents a viable choice, as the skin is an easily accessible window for the non-invasive, real-time assessment of subtle microcirculation abnormalities. Although NVC is routinely used in the rheumatology field, especially for the diagnostic workout of Raynaud’s phenomenon, accumulating evidence suggests a role in the evaluation of systemic vasculopathy associated with autoimmune rheumatic disorders. The current paper aims to provide an overview of NVC as a valuable clinical aid for the assessment of peripheral microcirculation in RA. Previous studies characterizing the capillaroscopic pattern in RA are summarized, along with associations with disease-related characteristics. Most available reports have mainly focused on the descriptions of non-specific morphological alterations that may reflect endothelial injury over the course of the disease. Still, the exact pattern of structural and functional capillaroscopic alterations and their clinical significance in RA remains a subject of ongoing research.

Novel Surrogate Markers of Cardiovascular Risk in the Setting of Autoimmune Rheumatic Diseases: Current Data and Implications for the Future

Patients suffering from rheumatologic diseases are known to have an increased risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD). Although the pathological mechanisms behind this excess risk have been increasingly better understood, there still seems to be a general lack of consensus in early detection and treatment of endothelial dysfunction and CVD risk in patients suffering from rheumatologic diseases and in particular in those who haven't yet shown symptoms of CVD. Traditional CVD prediction scores, such as Systematic Coronary Risk Evaluation (SCORE), Framingham, or PROCAM Score have been proposed as valid assessment tools of CVD risk in the general population. However, these risk calculators developed for the general population do not factor in the effect of the inflammatory burden, as well as other factors that can increase CVD risk in patients with rheumatic diseases, such as glucocorticoid therapy, abnormal lipoprotein function, endothelial dysfunction or accelerated atherosclerosis. Thus, their sole use could lead to underestimation of CVD risk in patients with rheumatic diseases. Therefore, there is a need for new biomarkers which will allow a valid and early assessment of CVD risk. In recent years, different research groups, including ours, have examined the value of different CVD risk factors such as carotid sonography, carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity, flow-mediated arterial dilation and others in the assessment of CVD risk. Moreover, various novel CVD laboratory markers have been examined in the setting of autoimmune diseases, such as Paraoxonase activity, Endocan and Osteoprotegerin. Dyslipidemia in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is for instance better quantified by lipoproteins and apolipoproteins than by cholesterol levels; screening as well as pre-emptive carotid sonography hold promise to identify patients earlier, when prophylaxis is more likely to be effective. The early detection of subtle changes indicating CVD in asymptomatic patients has been facilitated through improved imaging methods; the inclusion of artificial intelligence (AI) shows promising results in more recent studies. Even though the pathophysiology of coronary artery disease in patients with autoimmune rheumatic diseases has been examined in multiple studies, as we continuously gain an increased understanding of this comorbidity, particularly in subclinical cases we still seem to fail in the stratification of who really is at risk—and who is not. A the time being, a multipronged and personalized approach of screening patients for traditional CVD risk factors, integrating modern imaging and further CV diagnostic tools and optimizing treatment seems to be a solid approach. There is promising research on novel biomarkers, likewise, methods using artificial intelligence in imaging provide encouraging data indicating possibilities of risk stratification that might become gold standard in the near future. The present review concentrates on showcasing the newest findings concerning CVD risk in patients with rheumatologic diseases and aims to evaluate screening methods in order to optimize CVD risk evaluation and thus avoiding underdiagnosis and undertreatment, as well as highlighting which patient groups are most at risk.