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Tomioka Y, Kitazawa K, Numa K, Hughes JWB, Yokoi N, Sotozono C. The existence of senescent cells in conjunctival epithelium from elderly individuals. Jpn J Ophthalmol 2024; 68:157-165. [PMID: 38311689 DOI: 10.1007/s10384-023-01047-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 02/06/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE The ocular surface microenvironment changes with aging. However, it remains unclear if cellular senescence influences the ocular surface. We investigated the presence of p16INK4a-expressing senescent cells in healthy human conjunctiva. STUDY DESIGN Clinical and experimental. METHODS Healthy conjunctival tissue samples were obtained from middle-aged and elderly subjects. RT-qPCR was performed to assess the expression of senescence markers CDKN2A (p16INK4a) and CDKN1A (p21CIP1/WAF1) and immunostaining was performed to examine the expression of the senescence marker p16INK4a, stem cell markers Ki67 and p63, tight-junction marker ZO-1. RESULTS Our study involved 19 conjunctival tissue samples (10 elderly and 9 middle-aged), mean age [elderly: 75.8 ± 3.7 years (72-81), middle-aged: 52.7 ± 7 years (38-59)], sex (elderly: 3 men, 7 women; middle-aged: 3 men, 6 women). The expression of p16INK4a was significantly increased at the RNA level in the elderly compared to middle-aged (p < 0.05). Positivity rate of p16INK4a was significantly elevated in the elderly (15.0 ± 7.8%) compared to middle-aged (0.2 ± 0.6%) (p < 0.05). Positivity rate of Ki67and p63 was significantly reduced in the elderly (1.7 ± 1.7% and 16.5 ± 9.5%) compared to middle-aged (3.9 ± 1.8% and 24.7 ± 5.7%) (p < 0.05). ZO-1 expression was reduced in tissue samples showing p16INK4a-positivity but retained in tissue samples in which p16INK4a was undetectable. CONCLUSIONS Senescent cells accumulate with age in the conjunctival epithelium, accompanied by a decrease in Ki67, p63 and ZO-1 expressing cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasufumi Tomioka
- Department of Ophthalmology, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Hirokoji-agaru, Kawaramachi-dori, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto, 602-0841, Japan
| | - Koji Kitazawa
- Department of Ophthalmology, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Hirokoji-agaru, Kawaramachi-dori, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto, 602-0841, Japan.
- Buck Institute for Research on Aging, Novato, CA, 94945, USA.
| | - Kohsaku Numa
- Department of Ophthalmology, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Hirokoji-agaru, Kawaramachi-dori, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto, 602-0841, Japan
- Buck Institute for Research on Aging, Novato, CA, 94945, USA
| | | | - Norihiko Yokoi
- Department of Ophthalmology, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Hirokoji-agaru, Kawaramachi-dori, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto, 602-0841, Japan
| | - Chie Sotozono
- Department of Ophthalmology, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Hirokoji-agaru, Kawaramachi-dori, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto, 602-0841, Japan
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Nie F, Liu L, Cui J, Zhao Y, Zhang D, Zhou D, Wu J, Li B, Wang T, Li M, Yan M. Oligomeric Proanthocyanidins: An Updated Review of Their Natural Sources, Synthesis, and Potentials. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:antiox12051004. [PMID: 37237870 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12051004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Revised: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Oligomeric Proanthocyanidins (OPCs), as a class of compounds widely found in plants, are particularly abundant in grapes and blueberries. It is a polymer comprising many different monomers, such as catechins and epicatechins. The monomers are usually linked to each other by two types of links, A-linkages (C-O-C) and B-linkages (C-C), to form the polymers. Numerous studies have shown that compared to high polymeric procyanidins, OPCs exhibit antioxidant properties due to the presence of multiple hydroxyl groups. This review describes the molecular structure and natural source of OPCs, their general synthesis pathway in plants, their antioxidant capacity, and potential applications, especially the anti-inflammatory, anti-aging, cardiovascular disease prevention, and antineoplastic functions. Currently, OPCs have attracted much attention, being non-toxic and natural antioxidants of plant origin that scavenge free radicals from the human body. This review would provide some references for further research on the biological functions of OPCs and their application in various fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanxuan Nie
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Economic Crops Genetic Improvement and Integrated Utilization, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China
| | - Lili Liu
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Economic Crops Genetic Improvement and Integrated Utilization, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China
| | - Jiamin Cui
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Economic Crops Genetic Improvement and Integrated Utilization, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China
| | - Yuquan Zhao
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Economic Crops Genetic Improvement and Integrated Utilization, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China
| | - Dawei Zhang
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Economic Crops Genetic Improvement and Integrated Utilization, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China
| | - Dinggang Zhou
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Economic Crops Genetic Improvement and Integrated Utilization, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China
| | - Jinfeng Wu
- School of Life and Health Sciences, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Economic Crops Genetic Improvement and Integrated Utilization, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China
| | - Bao Li
- Crop Research Institute, Hunan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410125, China
- Hunan Engineering and Technology Research Center of Hybrid Rapeseed, Hunan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410125, China
| | - Tonghua Wang
- Crop Research Institute, Hunan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410125, China
- Hunan Engineering and Technology Research Center of Hybrid Rapeseed, Hunan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410125, China
| | - Mei Li
- Crop Research Institute, Hunan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410125, China
- Hunan Engineering and Technology Research Center of Hybrid Rapeseed, Hunan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410125, China
| | - Mingli Yan
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Economic Crops Genetic Improvement and Integrated Utilization, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China
- Crop Research Institute, Hunan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410125, China
- Hunan Engineering and Technology Research Center of Hybrid Rapeseed, Hunan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410125, China
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Manna K, Khan ZS, Saha M, Mishra S, Gaikwad N, Bhakta JN, Banerjee K, Das Saha K. Manjari Medika Grape Seed Extract Protects Methotrexate-Induced Hepatic Inflammation: Involvement of NF-κB/NLRP3 and Nrf2/HO-1 Signaling System. J Inflamm Res 2023; 16:467-492. [PMID: 36785716 PMCID: PMC9922067 DOI: 10.2147/jir.s338888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 08/20/2022] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective Grape Seed Extract is a natural source of various polyphenols, which have been shown to possess potent antioxidant and free radical-scavenging activities. The earlier studies have reported that grape seed extract exhibits broad-spectrum pharmacological activities. Therefore, studying the hepatoprotective effects and elucidation of mechanisms of action of the Indian Variety, Manjari Medika grape seed extract (GSE), may give an insight into therapeutic benefits. Methotrexate (MTX) is the first-line pharmacological therapy for different rheumatic diseases. The major adverse events such as hepatotoxicity are evident even in the low doses used for the treatment. The present study investigated the role of MTX on hepatic damage in murine liver and the plausible protective effects of the Indian grape variety, Manjari Medika grape seed extract, in ameliorating it. Methods and Results To assess the hepatological modulation, mice were divided into eight groups to investigate the ameliorative potential of this GSE (75 and 125 mg/kg) and correlate the experimental findings. The active components of the extract were assessed through UPLC-(ESI)-QToF-MS analysis. On the other hand, various biochemical and immunological indices were carried out to correlate the experimental data. The result demonstrated that the prophylactic administration of GSE reduced MTX-induced hepatic toxicity indices, which subsequently restored the hepatic morphological architecture. Moreover, the application of GSE in a dual dosage (75 and 125 mg/kg) suppressed MTX-induced reactive oxygen species generation, followed by lipid peroxidation and cellular nitrite formation. MTX-induced inflammasome activation through the redox-assisted cascade of TLR4/NF-κB signaling was further reduced by applying the GSE. The results showed that the activation of cytoprotective transcription factor Nrf2 enhanced the level of endogenous antioxidants. Furthermore, through the regulation of TLR4/NF-κB and Nrf2/HO-1 axis, this extract could reduce the MTX-mediated hepatic damage. Conclusion Our findings suggest that Manjari Medika seed extract could be used as a therapeutic agent to relieve the side effects of MTX and other hepatic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishnendu Manna
- Department of Food & Nutrition, University of Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal, India
| | - Zareen S Khan
- National Referral Laboratory, ICAR-National Research Centre for Grapes, Pune, Maharashtra, 412307, India
| | - Moumita Saha
- Cancer Biology and Inflammatory Disorder Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, West Bengal, 700032, India
| | - Snehasis Mishra
- Cancer Biology and Inflammatory Disorder Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, West Bengal, 700032, India
| | - Nilesh Gaikwad
- ICAR-National Research Centre on Pomegranate, Solapur, Maharashtra, 413255, India
| | - Jatindra Nath Bhakta
- Department of Food & Nutrition, University of Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal, India
| | - Kaushik Banerjee
- National Referral Laboratory, ICAR-National Research Centre for Grapes, Pune, Maharashtra, 412307, India,Kaushik Banerjee, National Referral Laboratory, ICAR-National Research Centre for Grapes, Pune, Maharashtra, 412307, India, Email
| | - Krishna Das Saha
- Cancer Biology and Inflammatory Disorder Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, West Bengal, 700032, India,Correspondence: Krishna Das Saha, Cancer Biology and Inflammatory Disorder Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, 4, Raja S.C. Mullick Road, Kolkata, West Bengal, 700032, India, Tel +91 33 2499 5810, Fax +91 33 2473 5197, Email
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Liu Y, Gu S, Su Y, Wang S, Cheng Y, Sang X, Jin L, Liu Y, Li C, Liu W, Chen M, Wang X, Wang Z. Embryonic stem cell extracellular vesicles reverse the senescence of retinal pigment epithelial cells by the p38MAPK pathway. Exp Eye Res 2023; 227:109365. [PMID: 36577484 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2022.109365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Revised: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cellular senescence is regarded as an initiator for age-related macular degeneration (AMD). We previously demonstrated that by the coculture way, embryonic stem cells (ESCs) can reverse the senescence of RPE cells, but xenograft cells can cause a plethora of adverse effects. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from ESCs can act as messengers to mediate nearby cell activities and have the same potential as ESCs to reverse RPE senescence. Furthermore, ESC-EVs have achieved preliminary efficacy while treating many age-related diseases. The present study aimed to test the effect of ESC-EVs on the replicative senescence model of RPE cells as well as its mechanism. The results showed that ESC-EVs enhanced the proliferative ability and cell cycle transition of senescent RPE cells, whereas reduced the senescence-associated galactosidase (SA-β-gal) staining rate, as well as the levels of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Moreover, classical markers of cellular senescence p21WAF1/CIP1 (p21) and p16INK4a (p16) were downregulated. The bioinformatic analysis and further study showed that the inhibition of the p38MAPK pathway by ESC-EVs played a pivotal role in RPE cellular senescence-reversing effect, which was ameliorated or even abolished when dehydrocorydaline were administrated simultaneously, demonstrating that ESC-EVs can effectively reverse RPE cellular senesence by inhibiting the p38MAPK pathway, thus highlights the potential of ESC-derived EVs as biomaterials for preventative and protective therapy in AMD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yurun Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, 510060, China.
| | - Simin Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, 510060, China.
| | - Yaru Su
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, 510060, China.
| | - Shoubi Wang
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen, 55 Zhenhai Road, Xiamen, China.
| | - Yaqi Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, 510060, China.
| | - Xuan Sang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, 510060, China.
| | - Lin Jin
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Shandong First Medical University, 16766 Jingshi Road, Jinan, Shandong Province, China.
| | - Ying Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, 510060, China.
| | - Chaoyang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, 510060, China.
| | - Weiqin Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, 510060, China.
| | - Minghao Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, 510060, China.
| | - Xiaoran Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, 510060, China.
| | - Zhichong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, 510060, China.
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Barinda AJ, Arozal W, Yuasa S. A review of pathobiological mechanisms and potential application of medicinal plants for vascular aging: focus on endothelial cell senescence. MEDICAL JOURNAL OF INDONESIA 2022. [DOI: 10.13181/mji.rev.226064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Endothelial cell (EC) senescence plays a pivotal role in aging and is essential for the pathomechanism of aging-related diseases. Drugs targeting cellular senescence, such as senolytic or senomorphic drugs, may prevent aging and age-related diseases, but these bullets remain undeveloped to target EC senescence. Some medicinal plants may have an anti-senescence property but remain undiscovered. Deep learning has become an emerging approach for drug discovery by simply analyzing cellular morphology-based deep learning. This precious tool would be useful for screening the herb candidate in senescent EC rejuvenescence. Of note, several medicinal plants that can be found in Indonesia such as Curcuma longa L., Piper retrofractum, Guazuma ulmifolia Lam, Centella asiatica (L.) Urb., and Garcinia mangostana L. might potentially possess an anti-senescence effect. This review highlighted the importance of targeting EC senescence, the use of deep learning for medicinal plant screening, and some potential anti-senescence plants originating from Indonesia.
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The Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD)-Preventing Mechanism of Natural Products. Processes (Basel) 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/pr10040678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is related to central visual loss in elderly people and, based on the increment in the percentage of the aging population, the number of people suffering from AMD could increase. AMD is initiated by retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cell death, finally leading to neovascularization in the macula lutea. AMD is an uncurable disease, but the symptom can be suppressed. The current therapy of AMD can be classified into four types: device-based treatment, anti-inflammatory drug treatment, anti-vascular endothelial growth factor treatment, and natural product treatment. All these therapies have adverse effects, however early AMD therapy used with products has several advantages, as it can prevent RPE cell apoptosis in safe doses. Cell death (apoptosis) is caused by various factors, such as oxidative stress, inflammation, carbonyl stress, and a deficiency in essential components for cells, and RPE cell death is related to oxidative stress, inflammation, and carbonyl stress. Some natural products have anti-oxidative effects, anti-inflammation effects, and/or anti-carbonylation effects. The AMD preventive mechanism of natural products varies, with some natural products activating one or more anti-apoptotic pathways, such as the Nrf2/HO-1 anti-oxidative pathway, the anti-inflammasome pathway, and the anti-carbonyl pathway. As AMD drug candidates from natural products effectively inhibit RPE cell death, they have the potential to be developed as drugs for preventing early (dry) AMD.
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Sreekumar PG, Reddy ST, Hinton DR, Kannan R. Mechanisms of RPE senescence and potential role of αB crystallin peptide as a senolytic agent in experimental AMD. Exp Eye Res 2022; 215:108918. [PMID: 34986369 PMCID: PMC8923947 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2021.108918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Oxidative stress in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) can cause mitochondrial dysfunction and is likely a causative factor in the pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Under oxidative stress conditions, some of the RPE cells become senescent and a contributory role for RPE senescence in AMD pathology has been proposed. The purpose of this study is to 1) characterize senescence in human RPE; 2) investigate the effect of an αB Crystallin chaperone peptide (mini Cry) in controlling senescence, in particular by regulating mitochondrial function and senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) production and 3) develop mouse models for studying the role of RPE senescence in dry and nAMD. Senescence was induced in human RPE cells in two ways. First, subconfluent cells were treated with 0.2 μg/ml doxorubicin (DOX); second, subconfluent cells were treated with 500 μM H2O2. Senescence biomarkers (senescence-associated beta-galactosidase (SA-βgal), p21, p16) and mitochondrial proteins (Fis1, DRP1, MFN2, PGC1-α, mtTFA) were analyzed in control and experimental groups. The effect of mini Cry on mitochondrial bioenergetics, glycolysis and SASP was determined. In vivo, retinal degeneration was induced by intravenous injection of NaIO3 (20 mg/kg) and subretinal fibrosis by laser-induced choroidal neovascularization. Increased SA-βgal staining and p16 and p21 expression was observed after DOX- or H2O2-induced senescence and mini Cry significantly decreased senescence-positive cells. The expression of mitochondrial biogenesis proteins PGC-1 and mTFA increased with senescence, and mini Cry reduced expression significantly. Senescent RPE cells were metabolically active, as evidenced by significantly enhanced oxidative phosphorylation and anaerobic glycolysis, mini Cry markedly reduced rates of respiration and glycolysis. Senescent RPE cells maintain a proinflammatory phenotype characterized by significantly increased production of cytokines (IFN-ˠ, TNF-α, IL1-α IL1-β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10), and VEGF-A; mini Cry significantly inhibited their secretion. We identified and localized senescent RPE cells for the first time in NaIO3-induced retinal degeneration and laser-induced subretinal fibrosis mouse models. We conclude that mini Cry significantly impairs stress-induced senescence by modulating mitochondrial biogenesis and fission proteins in RPE cells. Characterization of senescence could provide further understanding of the metabolic changes that accompany the senescent phenotype in ocular disease. Future studies in vivo may better define the role of senescence in AMD and the therapeutic potential of mini Cry as a senotherapeutic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parameswaran G Sreekumar
- The Stephen J. Ryan Initiative for Macular Research (RIMR), Doheny Eye Institute, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA.
| | - Srinivasa T Reddy
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
| | - David R Hinton
- Department of Pathology and Ophthalmology, USC Roski Eye Institute, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Ram Kannan
- The Stephen J. Ryan Initiative for Macular Research (RIMR), Doheny Eye Institute, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA; Stein Eye Institute, Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
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