Cranial nerves XIII and XIV: nerves in the shadows

Examination of the effect of fascial therapy on some physical fitness parameters in taekwondo athletes

One of the objectives of this study is to determine the effect of the eight-week fascial therapy program on flexibility, vertical jump, standing long jump, speed and anaerobic strength parameters in taekwondo athletes. Another aim of the research is to create a therapy protocol that can be used in athletes related to performance development through the relaxation of the fascial system, which is considered an indicator of physical fitness and has numerous functions in the body. This study included 32 taekwondo players who were licensed, actively attending taekwondo training. In the study, two groups were formed as fascial therapy group (FTG) (n ​= ​16) and control group (CG) (n ​= ​16). After the groups were randomized, fascial relaxation techniques were applied to the fascial therapy group for eight weeks, up to twice a week, and for 30 ​min. According to the findings obtained as a result of the research, FTG ([-0.36 ​± ​0.17] seconds [s]) for the 20 ​m (m) Sprint (T2-T1) had a lower mean time than CG (0.00 ​± ​0.07) s, FTG (0.06 ​± ​1.95) for the Flamingo Balance Test (T2-T1) had a lower mean fall than CG (1.25 ​± ​1.13), FTG ([3.56 ​± ​2.37] centimeters [cm]) for the Sit & Reach Test (T2-T1) had a lower mean fall than CG ([-0.19 ​± ​1.28] cm), FTG ([5.75 ​± ​2.54] cm) had a higher jump distance than CG ([1.88 ​± ​8.11] cm) according to the results of Vertical Jump Test (T2-T1) and finally FTG ([9.13 ​± ​5.56] cm) had a longer distance than CG ([-0.31 ​± ​1.85] cm) according to the results of Standing Long Jump Test (T2-T1). The result of our study has shown that fascial techniques can be used safely by experienced physiotherapists and can be included in the training program. It is recommended that coaches of sports disciplines work with experienced physiotherapists on this subject and include fascial methods in their training programs.

The vomeronasal organ: History, development, morphology, and functional neuroanatomy

The human vomeronasal organ (VNO) is an accessory olfactory organ located on the anteroinferior part of the nasal septum, 1.5-2.5cm from the nostrils. Its main role is pheromone reception and, through its anatomical connections with the central nervous system, especially parts of the hypothalamus, modulation of both social and sexual behavior, although these relations have been established only in nonprimates and very little is yet established for the structure and function of the human VNO. Morphologically, the human VNO is a pit or duct-shaped structure, comprised of three cellular layers-basal cells, neural cells with olfactory cell morphology and immunohistochemical phenotype, and ciliated respiratory epithelium. Medially and connected to the VNO, a small nerve fiber is found that runs longitudinally to the nasal septum and is considered by some to be a distant process of the Cranial Nerve 0 or terminal nerve. In addition to pheromone reception, the human VNO has also been associated with several pathological conditions, including sinus septi nasi, posttraumatic stress disorder, and ectopic olfactory esthesioblastoma.

Cranial nerve 13

Contrary to popular belief, there are 13 cranial nerves. The thirteenth cranial nerve, commonly referred to as the nervus terminalis or terminal nerve, is a highly conserved multifaceted nerve found just above the olfactory bulbs in humans and most vertebrate species. In most forms its fibers course from the rostral portion of the brain to the olfactory and nasal epithelia. Although there are differing perspectives as to what constitutes this nerve, in most species GnRH-immunoreactive neurons appear to be its defining feature. The involvement of this trophic peptide, as well as the nerve's association with the development of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, suggest a primary role in reproductive development and, in humans, disorders such as Kallmann syndrome. In some species, this enigmatic nerve appears to influence sensory processing, sexual behavior, autonomic and vasomotor control, and pathogenic defense (via secretion of nitric oxide). In this review, we provide a general overview of what is known about this neglected cranial nerve, with the goal of informing neurologists and neuroscientists of its presence and the need for its further study.

Ergojump evaluation of the explosive strength in volleyball athletes pre- and post-fascial treatment

It has previously been demonstrated that physiological mechanisms are involved in muscle pain and fatigue, as the nociceptive afferents of the fascial system are able to modulate the afferent response of the central nervous system. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate a sample of volleyball players, and investigate whether osteopathic treatment of the lower limb muscle groups improved the explosive force of the limbs, whilst reducing spasms and tension, releasing tissue strain and correcting posture. A randomized control study was performed to evaluate 57 athletes who underwent fascial manipulative treatment to assess if such treatment affected the muscle strength of the lower limbs. The treatment group demonstrated a statistically significant improvement in the squatting jump test (P<0.0001) and in the counter movement jump test (P<0.0001). Furthermore, the control group did not exhibit any improvement in the squatting jump test (P<0.56) or in the counter movement jump test (P<0.32). The results suggested that correction of the fascial system required a minimum time of 30 days in order to obtain an improvement of fascial mechanics and sports performance. Therefore, use of a fascial protocol during athletic training will help improve the balance of the bands and, as a direct consequence, improve the efficiency of the musculoskeletal system, thereby reducing the risk of injury. It would therefore be advisable to perform osteopathic treatment techniques every two months during an athletic season to maintain the balance of the fascial system and obtain the most efficient results.

Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring's Contributions on the Cranial Nerves and Vomeronasal Organ

Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring (January 28^th, 1755, Thorn, then Royal Prussia, now Torun Poland – March 2^nd, 1830, Frankfurt am Main, then a free city, now Germany) was one of the most respected Germanic scientists of his time. Whilst working on his philosophy doctorate (Ph.D.) thesis, when he was only 23 years old (circa 1778), Sömmerring proposed a new classification for the arrangement of the cranial nerves, based on the order in which they become visible on the surface of the brain. Amongst his many other anatomical studies worthy of notice, in 1809 Sömmerring began studying the human olfactory system. During this period, he published a detailed text with sketches, being the first to describe in detail the human vomeronasal organ (VNO), working in parallel with Jacobsen, whose name has been synonymous with the VNO, despite denying its existence in man. Nonetheless, Sömmerring's contributions are numerous. Some of his other works include the description of the structure of the female skeleton and how it differs from the male and the first description of the Pterodactyl in 1812, with which he has been epitomized in modern times and denoted due to his erroneous concepts on it. Even though he studied a wide range of subjects from medical to political, most of his work has been overlooked or forgotten but it is important to understand the range of his contributions.

The Human Vomeronasal (Jacobson's) Organ: A Short Review of Current Conceptions, With an English Translation of Potiquet's Original Text

The vomeronasal organ (VNO) is a structure located in the anteroinferior portion of the nasal septum and is part of the accessory olfactory system. The VNO, together with its associated structures, has been shown to play a role in the formation of social and sexual behavior in animals, thanks to its pheromone receptor cells and the stimulating effect on the secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone. The VNO was first described as a structure by the Dutch botanist and anatomist Frederik Ruysch in 1703 while dissecting a young male cadaver. This finding, however, is widely contradicted due to no elaborate descriptions being made by the Ruysch. The description of the VNO is more widely attributed to the Danish surgeon Ludwig Jacobson, with whom the VNO has been synonymized, as in 1803 he described the structure in a variety of mammals. Whilst Jacobson extensively studied prior reports of the VNO, he publicly denied its existence in humans. Following these discoveries and some contradictory statements in 1891, M. Potiquet published one of the more influential reviews on the topic. To this day, despite the first report of the organ's existence being made in a human and many articles stating its presence and supporting its function, the presence of a VNO in humans is still widely debated upon.

Understanding Fibroblasts in Order to Comprehend the Osteopathic Treatment of the Fascia

The osteopathic treatment of the fascia involves several techniques, each aimed at allowing the various layers of the connective system to slide over each other, improving the responses of the afferents in case of dysfunction. However, before becoming acquainted with a method, one must be aware of the structure and function of the tissue that needs treating, in order to not only better understand the manual approach, but also make a more conscious choice of the therapeutic technique to employ, in order to adjust the treatment to the specific needs of the patient. This paper examines the current literature regarding the function and structure of the fascial system and its foundation, that is, the fibroblasts. These connective cells have many properties, including the ability to contract and to communicate with one another. They play a key role in the transmission of the tension produced by the muscles and in the management of the interstitial fluids. They are a source of nociceptive and proprioceptive information as well, which is useful for proper functioning of the body system. Therefore, the fibroblasts are an invaluable instrument, essential to the understanding of the therapeutic effects of osteopathic treatment. Scientific research should make greater efforts to better understand their functioning and relationships.

The continuity of the body: hypothesis of treatment of the five diaphragms

The diaphragm muscle should not be seen as a segment but as part of a body system. This muscle is an important crossroads of information for the entire body, from the trigeminal system to the pelvic floor, passing from thoracic diaphragm to the floor of the mouth: the network of breath. Viola Frymann first spoke of the treatment of three diaphragms, and more recently four diaphragms have been discussed. Current scientific knowledge has led to discussion of the manual treatment of five diaphragms. This article highlights the anatomic connections and fascial and neurologic aspects of the diaphragm muscle, with four other structures considered as diaphragms: that is, the five diaphragms. The logic of the manual treatment proposed here is based on a concept and diagnostic work that should be the basis for any area of the body: The patient never just has a localized symptom but rather a system that adapts to a question.

Clinical and symptomatological reflections: the fascial system

Every body structure is wrapped in connective tissue, or fascia, creating a structural continuity that gives form and function to every tissue and organ. Currently, there is still little information on the functions and interactions between the fascial continuum and the body system; unfortunately, in medical literature there are few texts explaining how fascial stasis or altered movement of the various connective layers can generate a clinical problem. Certainly, the fascia plays a significant role in conveying mechanical tension, in order to control an inflammatory environment. The fascial continuum is essential for transmitting muscle force, for correct motor coordination, and for preserving the organs in their site; the fascia is a vital instrument that enables the individual to communicate and live independently. This article considers what the literature offers on symptoms related to the fascial system, trying to connect the existing information on the continuity of the connective tissue and symptoms that are not always clearly defined. In our opinion, knowing and understanding this complex system of fascial layers is essential for the clinician and other health practitioners in finding the best treatment strategy for the patient.

Skin, fascias, and scars: symptoms and systemic connections

Every element or cell in the human body produces substances that communicate and respond in an autocrine or paracrine mode, consequently affecting organs and structures that are seemingly far from each other. The same also applies to the skin. In fact, when the integrity of the skin has been altered, or when its healing process is disturbed, it becomes a source of symptoms that are not merely cutaneous. The skin is an organ, and similar to any other structure, it has different functions in addition to connections with the central and peripheral nervous system. This article examines pathological responses produced by scars, analyzing definitions and differences. At the same time, it considers the subcutaneous fascias, as this connective structure is altered when there is a discontinuous cutaneous surface. The consequence is an ample symptomatology, which is not limited to the body area where the scar is located, such as a postural or trigeminal disorder.