Relationship between self-reported pain sensitivity and pain after total knee arthroplasty: a prospective study of 71 patients 8 weeks after a standardized fast-track program

Higher self-perceived stress reactivity is associated with increased chronic pain risk

Self-perceived stress reactivity—how a person cognitively and emotionally responds to a stressor—is longitudinally associated with increased odds for the development of chronic pain.

Introduction:

Experiencing stress can contribute to unfavorable pain experiences, but outcomes vary across individuals. Evidence suggests that a person's specific reactivity to stressful events may influence pain responses. Previous studies measuring physiological stress reactivity have found associations with pain both clinically and in the laboratory. However, the time and cost required for testing physiological stress reactivity may limit clinical application.

Objective:

Self-reported perception of one's own stress reactivity has been shown to correlate with physiological stress reactivity in relation to health outcomes and may represent a valuable tool in clinical pain assessment.

Methods:

Using data from the Midlife in the US survey, we selected participants who did not have chronic pain at baseline (n = 1512) and who had data at follow-up 9 years later. Stress reactivity was assessed using a subscale of the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire. We conducted a binary logistic regression to determine the odds of developing chronic pain, controlling for demographics and other health-related variables.

Results:

Results indicate that higher reported stress reactivity at baseline increased the odds of developing chronic pain at follow-up (odds ratio (OR) = 1.085, 95% confidence interval (CI) (1.021, 1.153), P = 0.008), with the only other significant predictor being the number of chronic conditions (OR = 1.118, 95% CI (1.045, 1.197), P = 0.001).

Conclusion:

Findings provide evidence for the predictive criterion validity of self-reported stress reactivity in the context of chronic pain risk. More generally, with increased need for virtual assessment and care, self-reported stress reactivity may be a useful, time-efficient, and cost-efficient tool for predicting pain outcomes in research and clinical contexts.

A prospective randomised controlled trial of mechanical axis with soft tissue release balancing vs functional alignment with bony resection balancing in total knee replacement-a study using Stryker Mako robotic arm-assisted technology

Background

Improving the functional outcome following total knee arthroplasty (TKA) by using different alignment techniques remains controversial. The surgical techniques and technologies used so far to obtain these alignments have all suffered from inaccuracies. The use of robotic technology to plan and execute the bony resection provides increased accuracy for these various alignment techniques and may determine which will deliver superior function. Functional alignment (FA) is a newer surgical technique that aims to position the prosthesis with respect to each patients’ specific bony anatomy whilst minimising disruption to the soft tissue envelope. This trial aims to compare the patient and surgical outcomes of FA to the current gold standard surgical technique, mechanical alignment (MA), under randomised and blinded conditions.

Methods

Patients with symptomatic knee osteoarthritis will be prospectively recruited. Following informed consent, 240 patients will be randomised to either a MA surgical technique (the control group) or a FA surgical technique (the intervention group) at a ratio of 4:1 using a random number generator. All patients will undergo computer tomography (CT) based robotic arm-assisted surgery to execute planned implant positioning and alignment with high levels of accuracy. The primary outcome is the forgotten joint score (FJS) at 2 years post-operation. Secondary outcome measures include patient reported outcome measures of post-operative rehabilitation, pain, function and satisfaction, as well as limb alignment, implant revisions and adverse events. Intention-to-treat and per-protocol population analysis will also be conducted. Standardisation of the surgical system and care pathways will minimise variation and assist in both patient and physiotherapist blinding. Ethical approval was obtained from the Northern B Health and Disability Ethics Committee (20/NTB/10).

Discussion

Currently, MA remains the gold standard in knee replacement due to proven outcomes and excellent long-term survivorship. There are many alternative alignment techniques in the literature, all with the goal of improving patient outcomes. This study is unique in that it leverages an advanced analytics tool to assist the surgeon in achieving balance. Both alignment techniques will be executed with high precision using the CT-based robotic arm-assisted surgery system which will minimise surgical variation. This trial design will help determine if FA delivers superior outcomes for patients.

Trial registration

Australia and New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR), ACTRN12620000009910. Registered on 9 January 2020. ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT04600583. Registered on 29 September 2020.

Influence of increased pain sensitivity on patient-reported outcomes following total knee arthroplasty

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to discover whether increased pain sensitivity was associated with postoperative pain and patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) after total knee arthroplasty (TKA).

METHODS

Pain sensitivity was evaluated preoperatively using a pain sensitivity questionnaire (PSQ). Resting, walking, nighttime, and average pain visual analog scale (VAS) were measured before surgery and 6 weeks, 3 months, 6 months, and 1 year after surgery. PROMs were also evaluated based on the Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC) score and patient satisfaction. The association between pain VAS average score, WOMAC total score, and PSQ score (minor, moderate, and total score) was assessed at each stage.

RESULTS

There were 59 patients with a high PSQ score (≥ 5.2) and 53 with a low PSQ score (< 5.2). Up to 1 year postoperatively, the group with high PSQ scores had higher resting, walking, nighttime, and average pain VAS scores than the group with low scores (all p < 0.05). Worse preoperative WOMAC pain, function, and total scores continued until 1 year after surgery in the high-scoring PSQ group (all p < 0.05). The group with low PSQ scores was more satisfied with surgery than the group with high scores (p = 0.027). There was a positive correlation between preoperative PSQ score and pain VAS average score at all time points (all p < 0.05). A relationship between PSQ score and WOMAC total score was also observed (all p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Increased pain sensitivity is a factor related to higher postoperative pain levels and inferior PROMs in patients undergoing primary TKA.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Case-controlled study, III.

The Effect of Preoperative Anxiety and Pain Sensitivity on Preoperative Hemodynamics, Propofol Consumption, and Postoperative Recovery and Pain in Endoscopic Ultrasonography

INTRODUCTION

The present study investigates how preoperative anxiety and pain sensitivity affect the consumption of anesthetics, time elapsed until the desired sedation level is achieved, preoperative hemodynamics, postoperative recovery time, and postoperative pain.

METHODS

The present study includes 80 ASA 1-2 patients aged between 20 and 65 who were scheduled for endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS) under sedation. Patients were instructed to fill out the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) and Pain Sensitivity Questionnaire (PSQ) before the procedure. For sedation, 0.03 mg  kg^-1 intravenous midazolam, 1 mg  kg^-1 lidocaine, 1 µ kg^-1 fentanyl, and then a bolus dose of 1 mg kg^-1 propofol were infused over a period of 60 s. The time elapsed until the bispectral index (BIS) value reached 75 was recorded. For anesthesia maintenance, 2 mg  kg^-1 h^-1 propofol infusion was administered. In the case of sedation failure, an additional dose of 0.1 mg  kg^-1 propofol (IV) was administered to ensure sedation depth with a BIS level of 65-75, and the propofol infusion was halted once the BIS value dropped below 65.

RESULTS

STAI-S and STAI-T scores were significantly positively correlated with PSQ minor pain and PSQ total scores. The time elapsed until reaching a BIS level of 75, propofol infusion dose used during sedation, and the need for additional doses of propofol, heart rate (HR), and duration of post-anesthesia care unit stay were significantly positively correlated with both preoperative anxiety and preoperative pain sensitivity. In terms of postoperative pain, the visual analog scale (VAS) at 1 h was more highly correlated with STAI-S and STAI-T than with PSQ. The VAS 2 h was only correlated with STAI-S and STAI-T.

CONCLUSION

The significant linear correlation between preoperative anxiety and pain sensitivity and anesthesia need can facilitate better preoperative management by predicting individual anesthetic consumption.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The study was registered with the number NCT03114735 on ClinicalTrials.gov.

Preoperative pain sensitivity questionnaire helps customize pain management after arthroscopic partial meniscectomy

PURPOSE

To evaluate correlations between preoperative pain sensitivity and postoperative analgesic consumption together with pain perception shortly after arthroscopic partial meniscectomy in non-arthritic knees.

METHODS

Ninety-nine patients who underwent primary arthroscopic meniscectomy were prospectively divided into three postoperative treatment groups that were prescribed with betamethasone injection (at the end of surgery), oral celecoxib or rescue analgesia (control). Preoperative pain sensitivity was evaluated by pain sensitivity questionnaires (PSQ). Patients were followed for the first three postoperative weeks to evaluate knee injury and osteoarthritis outcome score (KOOS) pain scores and analgesics consumption. Statistical analysis included correlations among preoperative pain sensitivity, postoperative pain levels and analgesics consumption. A receiver operating characteristic curve was plotted to investigate the cutoff values of the PSQ score to predict insufficient postoperative pain reduction.

RESULTS

There were no differences at baseline among all study groups in age, sex, BMI, level of activity, comorbidities and surgical findings. At the final follow-up, KOOS pain scores improved in all groups (p < 0.001). Mean final KOOS pain scores were 76.1 ± 15.2 for the betamethasone group, 70.8 ± 12.6 for the celecoxib group and 78.7 ± 11.6 for the control group. No differences in scores were observed among groups (n.s.). In the control group, a negative correlation was observed between PSQ score and KOOS-pain scores at the end of the follow-up in addition to a positive correlation between PSQ score and rescue analgesia consumption at the first postoperative week. The optimal cutoff value for PSQ score to predict insufficient improvement in KOOS-pain subscale was 5.0 points.

CONCLUSIONS

A cutoff value of pain sensitivity questionnaire score above 5.0 points was determined to identify patients with higher sensitivity to pain who underwent arthroscopic partial meniscectomy. These patients reported relatively increased pain and consumed more rescue analgesics postoperatively unless treated with a single intraoperative corticosteroids injection or oral non-steroidal anti-inflammatories. Therefore, surgeons can use pain sensitivity questionnaire score as a preoperative tool to identify patients with high sensitivity to pain and customize their postoperative analgesics protocol to better fit their pain levels.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

II.

During capsaicin-induced central sensitization, brush allodynia is associated with baseline warmth sensitivity, whereas mechanical hyperalgesia is associated with painful mechanical sensibility, anxiety and somatization

BACKGROUND

Mechanical hyperalgesia and allodynia incidence varies considerably amongst neuropathic pain patients. This study explored whether sensory or psychological factors associate with mechanical hyperalgesia and brush allodynia in a human experimental model.

METHODS

Sixty-six healthy volunteers (29 male) completed psychological questionnaires and participated in two quantitative sensory testing (QST) sessions. Warmth detection threshold (WDT), heat pain threshold (HPT) and suprathreshold mechanical pain (STMP) ratings were measured before exposure to a capsaicin-heat pain model (C-HP). After C-HP exposure, brush allodynia and STMP were measured in one session, whilst mechanical hyperalgesia was measured in another session.

RESULTS

WDT and HPT measured in sessions separated by 1 month demonstrated significant but moderate levels of reliability (WDT: ICC = 0.5, 95%CI [0.28, 0.77]; HPT: ICC = 0.62, 95%CI [0.40, 0.77]). Brush allodynia associated with lower WDT (z = -3.06, p = 0.002; ϕ = 0.27). Those with allodynia showed greater hyperalgesia intensity (F = 7.044, p = 0.010, η_p ²  = 0.107) and area (F = 9.319, p = 0.004, η_p ²  = 0.163) than those without allodynia. No psychological self-report measures were significantly different between allodynic and nonallodynic groups. Intensity of hyperalgesia in response to lighter mechanical stimuli was associated with lower HPT, higher STMP ratings and higher Pain Sensitivity Questionnaire scores at baseline. Hyperalgesia to heavier probe stimuli associated with state anxiety and to a lesser extent somatic awareness. Hyperalgesic area associated with lower baseline HPT and higher STMP ratings. Hyperalgesic area was not correlated with allodynic area across individuals.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings support research in neuropathic pain patients and human experimental models that peripheral sensory input and individual sensibility are related to development of mechanical allodynia and hyperalgesia during central sensitization, whilst psychological factors play a lesser role.

SIGNIFICANCE

We evaluated differential relationships of psychological and perceptual sensitivity to the development of capsaicin-induced mechanical allodynia and hyperalgesia. Fifty percent of healthy volunteers failed to develop mechanical allodynia. Baseline pain sensitivity was greater in those developing allodynia and was related to the magnitude and area of hyperalgesia. State psychological factors, whilst unrelated to allodynia, were related to mechanical hyperalgesia. This supports that the intensity of peripheral sensory input and individual sensibility are related to development of mechanical allodynia and hyperalgesia during central sensitization, whilst psychological factors play a lesser role.

Anchoring the Numeric Pain Scale Changes Pain Intensity Reports in Patients With Chronic But Not With Acute Pain

BACKGROUND

Despite enormous differences between acute and chronic pain, the numeric pain scale (NRS) is commonly used in pain research and clinical practice for assessing the intensity of both acute and chronic pain. The use of this scale has been challenged as it may fail to accurately reflect the pure intensity of chronic pain.

AIM

To compare the effect of anchoring the NRS on the intensity of pain reported by patients with acute vs. chronic pain.

METHODS

Patients with acute postoperative or chronic pain (n = 100/group) were requested to rate their: current clinical pain intensity on an NRS from 0 to 100; the intensity of an anchoring pain event on the same scale; and subsequently to rate again their current pain intensity while making reference to the reported intensity of the pain event. The magnitude of correction was compared between the 2 groups.

RESULTS

The anchoring pain was rated identically between the groups. However, following anchoring, patients with chronic pain made a significantly larger correction of their pain intensity than did those with acute pain (mean ± standard deviation = 9 ± 9, median [interquartile range] = 10 [0 to 10] vs. 3 ± 7, 0 [0 to 5], respectively; P < 0.0001). More patients in the chronic pain group corrected their pain intensity. Logistic regression showed that chronic pain and female gender significantly increased the likelihood of making the correction (chronic pain: odds ratio 7.2, 95% confidence interval 3.5 to 15.1, P < 0.0001; female gender: odds ratio 2.8, 95% confidence interval 1.4 to 5.5, P < 0.0001).

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that anchoring the NRS can potentially improve the accuracy of reported chronic pain intensity.

Association between self-perceived pain sensitivity and pain intensity after cardiac surgery

Background and purpose

Cardiac surgical pain remains a clinical challenge affecting about 40% of individuals in the first six months post-cardiac surgery, and continues up to two years after surgery for about 15–20%. Self-perceived sensitivity to pain may help to identify individuals at risk for persistent cardiac surgical pain to optimize health care responses. The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between self-perceived pain sensitivity assessed by the Pain Sensitivity Questionnaire (PSQ) and postoperative worst pain intensity up to 12 months after cardiac surgery. Sex differences in baseline characteristics and the PSQ scores were also assessed.

Methods

This study was performed among 416 individuals (23% women) scheduled for elective coronary artery bypass graft and/or valve surgery between March 2012 and September 2013. A secondary data-analysis was utilized to explore the relationship between preoperative PSQ scores and worst pain intensity rated preoperatively, across postoperative Days 1–4, at 2 weeks, and at 1, 3, 6, and 12 months post-surgery. Linear mixed model analyses were performed to estimate changes in pain intensity during 1-year follow-up.

Results

The mean (±standard deviation) PSQ-total score was 3.3±1.4, with similar scores in men and women. The PSQ-total score was significantly associated with higher worst pain intensity ratings adjusted for participant characteristics (p=0.001).

Conclusion

Use of the PSQ before surgery may predict cardiac surgical pain intensity. However, previous evidence is limited and not consistent, and more research is needed to substantiate our results.

Does self-perception of sensitivity to pain correlate with actual sensitivity to experimental pain?

Background

People often state that they are “sensitive” or “insensitive” to pain. However, the accuracy and clinical relevance of such statements is unclear.

Objective

The aim of this study was to search for associations between self-perception of sensitivity to pain and experimental pain measures, including known psychophysical inhibitory or excitatory pain paradigms.

Subjects and methods

Subjective sensitivity to pain was reported by 75 healthy participants and included three self-perceived variables: pain threshold, pain sensitivity and pain intensity in response to a hypothetical painful event (hypothetical pain intensity [HPI]). Experimental pain measures consisted of thermal pain threshold (°C), suprathreshold thermal pain intensity (Visual Analog Scale, 0–100) and the psychophysical paradigms of conditioned pain modulation (CPM) and temporal summation (TS), representing inhibitory and excitatory pain processes, respectively.

Results

No significant correlations were found between self-perceived pain threshold or pain sensitivity and any of the experimental pain measures. In contrast, the reported HPI correlated with thermal pain threshold (r = −0.282; p = 0.014), suprathreshold thermal pain intensity (r = 0.367; p = 0.001) and CPM (r = 0.233; p = 0.044), but not with TS.

Conclusion

Self-perception of pain sensitivity articulated by intangible expressions such as pain threshold or pain sensitivity is unrelated to actual sensitivity to experimental pain. In contrast, when measured by intensity of a hypothetical painful event (HPI), sensitivity to pain is associated with some, but not all, experimental pain reports. Further studies are needed for better understanding of these associations and their potential clinical significance.

Preoperative intravenous glucocorticoids can reduce postoperative acute pain following total knee arthroplasty: A meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The ability of preoperative intravenous glucocorticoids to control pain after total knee arthroplasty (TKA) has been examined in many studies, but it remains controversial. Therefore, we undertook a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) to evaluate the efficacy and safety of preoperative intravenous glucocorticoids for postoperative pain management after TKA.

METHODS

We systematically searched RCTs from electronic databases, including PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, the Cochrane Library, the Chinese Wanfang Database, and the China National Knowledge Infrastructure database. The outcomes included visual analogue scale (VAS) scores at 6, 12, 24, 48, and 72 hours after TKA; the occurrence of postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV); blood glucose at 6 and 24 hours after TKA; and the occurrence of infection.

RESULTS

Of the identified studies, a total of 11 RCTs involving 1000 patients (glucocorticoids = 501, control = 499) were included in this meta-analysis. Compared with a placebo, preoperative intravenous glucocorticoids significantly reduced VAS scores at 6, 12, 24, and 48 hours, with decreases of 3.63 points, 6.81 points, 10.40 points, and 3.15 points, respectively, on a 110-point VAS. Moreover, intravenous glucocorticoids were associated with significant decreases of 19.4% and 16.8% in the occurrence of nausea and vomiting, respectively. However, intravenous glucocorticoids were also associated with increased blood glucose with no clinical importance at 6 hours after TKA. No significant difference was found in the occurrence of infection or in blood glucose at 24 hours after TKA.

CONCLUSION

Preoperative intravenous glucocorticoids are an effective and safe method to reduce postoperative pain and PONV in patients following TKA. More studies are necessary to identify the optimal dose and type of glucocorticoids for maximal pain control.

Can intravenous steroid administration reduce postoperative pain scores following total knee arthroplasty?: A meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) was to evaluate whether intravenous steroids would result in reduced acute pain and postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) among patients undergoing total knee arthroplasty (TKA).

METHODS

Electronic databases, including PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and the Cochrane Library, were searched to identify articles published from database inception to July 2016. RCTs that compared the effects of intravenous steroids with the effects of placebo among patients undergoing TKA were included in this meta-analysis. The primary outcomes were visual analogue scale (VAS) scores after 12, 24, and 48 hours of rest and PONV incidence. The secondary outcomes were blood glucose levels and incidence of infection. We calculated the risk ratio (RR) with its corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI) for dichotomous outcomes and the mean difference (MD) with its corresponding 95% CI for continuous outcomes.

RESULTS

Seven clinical trials involving 434 patients were included in the final meta-analysis. The pooled results indicated that intravenous steroids were associated with decreased VAS scores after 24 hours (MD = -10.21, 95%CI = -18.80 to -1.63, P = .020) and 48 hours (MD = -2.60, 95%CI = -4.70 to -0.50, P = .015) of rest. Moreover, intravenous steroids were also associated with decreased risk of nausea (RR = 0.58, 95% CI 0.44-0.77, P = .000) and vomiting (RR = 0.46, 95% CI = 0.24-0.88, P = .019). However, intravenous steroids were also associated with increased blood glucose levels. No significant difference in the risk of infection was identified between the 2 groups.

CONCLUSION

Intravenous steroids may be associated with decreased pain intensity and decreased risk of nausea and vomiting during the early period following TKA. However, evidence supporting its use is limited by the low quality of and variations in dosing regimens between the included RCTs. Thus, more high-quality RCTs are needed to identify the optimal drug administration intervals for maximal pain control.