Tumor-Linked Macrophages Promote HCC Development by Mediating the CCAT1/Let-7b/HMGA2 Signaling Pathway

Biological impact and therapeutic implication of tumor-associated macrophages in hepatocellular carcinoma

The tumor microenvironment is a complex space comprised of normal, cancer and immune cells. The macrophages are considered as the most abundant immune cells in tumor microenvironment and their function in tumorigenesis is interesting. Macrophages can be present as M1 and M2 polarization that show anti-cancer and oncogenic activities, respectively. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) mainly have M2 polarization and they increase tumorigenesis due to secretion of factors, cytokines and affecting molecular pathways. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is among predominant tumors of liver that in spite of understanding its pathogenesis, the role of tumor microenvironment in its progression still requires more attention. The presence of TAMs in HCC causes an increase in growth and invasion of HCC cells and one of the reasons is induction of glycolysis that such metabolic reprogramming makes HCC distinct from normal cells and promotes its malignancy. Since M2 polarization of TAMs stimulates tumorigenesis in HCC, molecular networks regulating M2 to M1 conversion have been highlighted and moreover, drugs and compounds with the ability of targeting TAMs and suppressing their M2 phenotypes or at least their tumorigenesis activity have been utilized. TAMs increase aggressive behavior and biological functions of HCC cells that can result in development of therapy resistance. Macrophages can provide cell-cell communication in HCC by secreting exosomes having various types of biomolecules that transfer among cells and change their activity. Finally, non-coding RNA transcripts can mainly affect polarization of TAMs in HCC.

The role of competing endogenous RNA network in the development of hepatocellular carcinoma: potential therapeutic targets

The current situation of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) management is challenging due to its high incidence, mortality, recurrence and metastasis. Recent advances in gene genetic and expression regulation have unveiled the significant role of non-coding RNA (ncRNA) in various cancers. This led to the formulation of the competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) hypothesis, which posits that both coding RNA and ncRNA, containing miRNA response elements (MRE), can share the same miRNA sequence. This results in a competitive network between ncRNAs, such as lncRNA and mRNA, allowing them to regulate each other. Extensive research has highlighted the crucial role of the ceRNA network in HCC development, impacting various cellular processes including proliferation, metastasis, cell death, angiogenesis, tumor microenvironment, organismal immunity, and chemotherapy resistance. Additionally, the ceRNA network, mediated by lncRNA or circRNA, offers potential in early diagnosis and prevention of HCC. Consequently, ceRNAs are emerging as therapeutic targets for HCC. The complexity of these gene networks aligns with the multi-target approach of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), presenting a novel perspective for TCM in combating HCC. Research is beginning to show that TCM compounds and prescriptions can affect HCC progression through the ceRNA network, inhibiting proliferation and metastasis, and inducing apoptosis. Currently, the lncRNAs TUG1, NEAT1, and CCAT1, along with their associated ceRNA networks, are among the most promising ncRNAs for HCC research. However, this field is still in its infancy, necessitating advanced technology and extensive basic research to fully understand the ceRNA network mechanisms of TCM in HCC treatment.

The role of tumor-associated macrophages in hepatocellular carcinoma progression: A narrative review

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common malignant tumors in the world, with complex etiology and mechanism, and a high mortality rate. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are an important part of the HCC tumor microenvironment. Studies in recent years have shown that TAMs are involved in multiple stages of HCC and are related to treatment and prognosis in HCC. The specific mechanisms between TAMs and HCC are gradually being revealed. This paper reviews recent advances in the mechanisms associated with TAMs in HCC, concentrating on an overview of effects of TAMs on drug resistance in HCC and the signaling pathways linked with HCC, providing clues for the treatment and prognosis determination of HCC.

HMGA2 regulation by miRNAs in cancer: affecting cancer hallmarks and therapy response

High mobility group A 2 (HMGA2) is a protein that modulates the structure of chromatin in the nucleus. Importantly, aberrant expression of HMGA2 occurs during carcinogenesis, and this protein is an upstream mediator of cancer hallmarks including evasion of apoptosis, proliferation, invasion, metastasis, and therapy resistance. HMGA2 targets critical signaling pathways such as Wnt/β-catenin and mTOR in cancer cells. Therefore, suppression of HMGA2 function notably decreases cancer progression and improves outcome in patients. As HMGA2 is mainly oncogenic, targeting expression by non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) is crucial to take into consideration since it affects HMGA2 function. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) belong to ncRNAs and are master regulators of vital cell processes, which affect all aspects of cancer hallmarks. Long ncRNAs (lncRNAs) and circular RNAs (circRNAs), other members of ncRNAs, are upstream mediators of miRNAs. The current review intends to discuss the importance of the miRNA/HMGA2 axis in modulation of various types of cancer, and mentions lncRNAs and circRNAs, which regulate this axis as upstream mediators. Finally, we discuss the effect of miRNAs and HMGA2 interactions on the response of cancer cells to therapy. Regarding the critical role of HMGA2 in regulation of critical signaling pathways in cancer cells, and considering the confirmed interaction between HMGA2 and one of the master regulators of cancer, miRNAs, targeting miRNA/HMGA2 axis in cancer therapy is promising and this could be the subject of future clinical trial experiments.

Noncoding RNA-mediated molecular bases of chemotherapy resistance in hepatocellular carcinoma

Despite the significant progress in decreasing the occurrence and mortality of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), it remains a public health issue worldwide on the basis of its late presentation and tumor recurrence. To date, apart from surgical interventions, such as surgical resection, liver transplantation and locoregional ablation, current standard antitumor protocols include conventional cytotoxic chemotherapy. However, due to the high chemoresistance nature, most current therapeutic agents show dismal outcomes for this refractory malignancy, leading to disease relapse. Nevertheless, the molecular mechanisms involved in chemotherapy resistance remain systematically ambiguous. Herein, HCC is hierarchically characterized by the formation of primitive cancer stem cells (CSCs), progression of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), unbalanced autophagy, delivery of extracellular vesicles (EVs), escape of immune surveillance, disruption of ferroptosis, alteration of the tumor microenvironment and multidrug resistance-related signaling pathways that mediate the multiplicity and complexity of chemoresistance. Of note, anecdotal evidence has corroborated that noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) extensively participate in the critical physiological processes mentioned above. Therefore, understanding the detailed regulatory bases that underlie ncRNA-mediated chemoresistance is expected to yield novel insights into HCC treatment. In the present review, a comprehensive summary of the latest progress in the investigation of chemotherapy resistance concerning ncRNAs will be elucidated to promote tailored individual treatment for HCC patients.

Integrated analysis of multiple bioinformatics studies to identify microRNA-target gene-transcription factor regulatory networks in retinoblastoma

Background

In children, retinoblastoma (RB) is one of the most common primary malignant ocular tumors and has a poor prognosis and high mortality. To understand the molecular mechanisms of RB, we identified microRNAs (miRNAs), key genes and transcription factors (TFs) using bioinformatics analysis to build potential miRNA-gene-TF networks.

Methods

We collected three gene expression profiles and one miRNA expression profile from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. We used the limma R package to identify overlapping differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and differentially expressed miRNAs in RB tissues compared to noncancer tissues. The robust rank aggregation (RRA) method was implemented to identify key genes among the DEGs. Then, miRNA-key gene-TF networks were built using the online tools TransmiR and miRTarBase. Next, we used RT-qPCR to confirm the results.

Results

We identified 180 DEGs in RB tissues compared to nontumor tissues using integrative analysis, among which 109 genes were upregulated and 71 were downregulated. Gene ontology (GO) analysis revealed that these DEGs were primarily involved with chromosome segregation, condensed chromosome and DNA replication origin binding. The most highly enriched pathways obtained in Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis were cell cycle, DNA replication, homologous recombination, P53 signaling pathway and pyrimidine metabolism. Furthermore, two key differentially expressed miRNAs (DEMs) were also established: let-7a and let-7b. Finally, the potential regulatory networks of miRNA-target gene-TFs were examined.

Conclusions

This study identified key genes and built miRNA-target gene-TF regulatory networks in RB, which will deepen our understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in the development of RB. These key genes and miRNAs may be potential targets and biomarkers for RB diagnosis and therapy.

Noncoding RNA-mediated macrophage and cancer cell crosstalk in hepatocellular carcinoma

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a well-recognized system that plays an essential role in tumor initiation, development, and progression. Intense intercellular communication between tumor cells and other cells (especially macrophages) occurs in the TME and is mediated by cell-to-cell contact and/or soluble messengers. Emerging evidence indicates that noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) are critical regulators of the relationship between cells within the TME. In this review, we provide an update on the regulation of ncRNAs (primarily micro RNAs [miRNAs], long ncRNAs [lncRNAs], and circular RNAs [circRNAs]) in the crosstalk between macrophages and tumor cells in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). These ncRNAs are derived from macrophages or tumor cells and act as oncogenes or tumor suppressors, contributing to tumor progression not only by regulating the physiological and pathological processes of tumor cells but also by controlling macrophage infiltration, activation, polarization, and function. Herein, we also explore the options available for clinical therapeutic strategies targeting crosstalk-related ncRNAs to treat HCC. A better understanding of the relationship between macrophages and tumor cells mediated by ncRNAs will uncover new diagnostic biomarkers and pharmacological targets in cancer.

Mechanisms of cancer stem cells drug resistance and the pivotal role of HMGA2

Nowadays, the focus of researchers is on perceiving the heterogeneity observed in a tumor. The researchers studied the role of a specific subset of cancer cells with high resistance to traditional treatments, recurrence, and unregulated metastasis. This small population of tumor cells that have stem-cell-like specifications was named Cancer Stem Cells (CSCs). The unique features that distinguish this type of cancer cell are self-renewing, generating clones of the tumor, plasticity, recurrence, and resistance to therapies. There are various mechanisms that contribute to the drug resistance of CSCs, such as CSCs markers, Epithelial mesenchymal transition, hypoxia, other cells, inflammation, and signaling pathways. Recent investigations have revealed the primary role of HMGA2 in the development and invasion of cancer cells. Importantly, HMGA2 also plays a key role in resistance to treatment through their function in the drug resistance mechanisms of CSCs and challenge it. Therefore, a deep understanding of this issue can provide a clearer perspective for researchers in the face of this problem.

HMGA2 facilitates colorectal cancer progression via STAT3-mediated tumor-associated macrophage recruitment

Rationale: Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), generally displaying the pro-tumor M2-like phenotype, strongly influence the progression of colorectal cancer (CRC) via their immunosuppressive activities. The high-mobility gene group A2 (HMGA2), an oncoprotein, is aberrantly overexpressed in CRC cells. However, the mechanisms by which tumor-derived HMGA2 modulates tumor microenvironment in CRC remain poorly understood.

Methods:In vivo subcutaneous tumor xenograft model, azoxymethane (AOM)/dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced tumor mouse model and in vitro co-culture assays were used to investigate the Hmga2 role in TAM recruitment and polarization. Luciferase and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays were applied to examine the mechanism of HMGA2-mediated transcriptional regulation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3). The CD68 correlation with patient outcome was analyzed in 167 human CRC tissues.

Results: We found that HMGA2 in cancer cells promoted macrophage recruitment and M2 polarization in vitro and in vivo. HMGA2 directly bound to the STAT3 promoter to activate its transcription and subsequently induced CCL2 secretion, thus promoting macrophage recruitment. Our results from human CRC specimens also revealed a strong positive association between HMGA2 expression in tumor cells and CD68 expression in the stroma. We further showed that patients with an elevated CD68 expression had an unfavorable overall survival in all of the patients or in the subgroup with negative distant metastasis.

Conclusion: Our work uncovers new insight into the link between the HMGA2/STAT3/CCL2 axis and macrophage recruitment in CRC. These findings provide a novel therapeutic option for targeting the HMGA2/STAT3/CCL2 axis in CRC.

A Mutation-Related Long Noncoding RNA Signature of Genome Instability Predicts Immune Infiltration and Hepatocellular Carcinoma Prognosis

Background: Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been discovered to play a regulatory role in genomic instability (GI), which participates in the carcinogenesis of various cancers, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). We endeavored to establish a GI-derived lncRNA signature (GILncSig) as a potential biomarker and explore its impact on immune infiltration and prognostic significance. Methods: Combining expression and somatic mutation profiles from The Cancer Genome Atlas database, we identified GI-related lncRNAs and conducted functional analyses on co-expressed genes. Based on Cox regression analysis, a GILncSig was established in the training cohort (n = 187), and an independent testing patient cohort (n = 183) was used to validate its predictive ability. Kaplan-Meier method and receiver operating characteristic curves were adopted to evaluate the performance. The correlation between GI and immune infiltration status was investigated based on the CIBERSORT algorithm and single sample gene set enrichment analysis. In addition, a comprehensive nomogram integrating the GILncSig and clinicopathological variables was constructed to efficiently assess HCC patient prognosis in clinical applications. Results: A total of 88 GI-related lncRNAs were screened out and the functional analyses indicated diversified effects on HCC progression. The GILncSig was established using four independent lncRNAs (AC116351.1, ZFPM2-AS1, AC145343.1, and MIR210HG) with significant prognostic value (p < 0.05). Following evaluation with the GILncSig, low-risk patients had significantly better clinical outcomes than high-risk patients in the training cohort (p < 0.001), which was subsequently validated in the independent testing cohort. High-risk group exhibited more immunocyte infiltration including B cells memory, macrophages M0 and neutrophils and higher expression of HLA gene set and immune checkpoint genes. Compared to existing HCC signatures, the GILncSig showed better prognosis predictive performance [area under the curve (AUC) = 0.709]. Furthermore, an integrated nomogram was constructed and validated to efficiently and reliably evaluate HCC patient prognosis (3-years survival AUC = 0.710 and 5-years survival AUC = 0.707). Conclusion: The GILncSig measuring GI and impacting immune infiltration serves as a potential biomarker and independent predictor of HCC patient prognosis. Our results highlight further investigation of GI and HCC molecular mechanisms.

Assessment of immune status of laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma can predict prognosis and guide treatment

BACKGROUND

In the past few years, immunotherapy has changed the way we treat solid tumors. People pay more and more attention to the immune microenvironment of laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma (LSCC). In this study, our immunotherapy research took advantage of the clinical database and focused our in-depth analysis on the tumor microenvironment (TME).

METHODS

This study evaluated the relationship between the clinical outcome and the local tissue and overall immune status in 412 patients with primary LSCC. We constructed and validated a risk model that could predict prognosis, assess immune status, identify high-risk patients, and develop personalized treatment plans through bioinformatics. In addition, through immunohistochemical analysis, we verified the differential expression of CTSL and KDM5D genes with the largest weight coefficients in the model in LSCC tissues and their influence on the prognosis and tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs).

RESULTS

We found that interstitial tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, tumor parenchymal-infiltrating lymphocyte volume, tumor infiltrates lymphocytes of frontier invasion, and the platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio (PLR) were independent factors affecting the prognosis of patients with LSCC. A novel risk model can guide clinicians to accurately predict prognosis, identify high-risk patients, and formulate personalized treatment plans. The differential expression of genes such as CTSL and KDM5D has a significant correlation with the TILs of LSCC and the prognosis of patients.

CONCLUSION

Local and systemic inflammatory markers in patients with laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma are reliable prognostic factors. The risk model and CTSL, KDM5D gene have important potential research value.

The emerging landscape of long non-coding RNAs in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common and aggressive cancers. HCC shows high prevalence and lethality caused by a variety of etiologic factors. However, the underlying mechanisms and the diagnostic markers identifying patients at risk in advance has not been entirely elucidated. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are a subgroup of non-coding RNAs greater than 200 nucleotides in length with no protein-coding capability. With the progress in sequencing technologies and bioinformatic tools, the landscape of lncRNAs is being revealed. Numerous discoveries point out that lncRNAs participate in HCC carcinogenesis and metastasis through altering cell proliferation and invasion ability, apoptosis, and chemo- or radio-sensitivity. Moreover, lncRNA is easy to detect compared to the traditional diagnostic methods. This review summarizes the mechanisms of major lncRNAs in HCC discovered in recent years and lncRNAs as early diagnostic markers for HCC.

MARCKS on Tumor-Associated Macrophages is Correlated with Immune Infiltrates and Poor Prognosis in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular carcinoma is the fourth most common cause of cancer-related death. However, the cross-talk between tumor immune microenvironment and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains unclear.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We analyzed the expression of miR-143-3p in exosomes from different HCC cell lines. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) co-cultured with HCC cell lines were overlapped with miR-143-3p target genes. We used the Oncomine, Kaplan-Meier plotter, and The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) databases to assess Myristoylated alanine-rich C-kinase substrate (MARCKS) expression in various types of cancers. The relationship between patient clinicopathological characteristics and MARCKS expression level was identified using the Kaplan-Meier plotter database. Last, we analyzed how MARCKS expression correlated with immune infiltration makers using the TCGA database, Tumor IMmune Estimation Resource (TIMER), and Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis (GEPIA).

RESULTS

Exosomal miR-143-3p was elevated after IL-6 treatment in the HCC cell line. MARCKS, a target gene of miR-143-3p, was up-regulated in Tumor-associated macrophages co-cultured with high-metastatic-potential HCC cell line. MARCKS expression was identified as significantly correlated with outcome in multiple types of cancer, especially in HCC. High MARCKS expression level was associated with poorer overall survival (OS), Progress-free survival (PFS), and also with patient gender, race, hepatitis virus background, stage, grade, AJCC_T, and vascular invasion. MARCKS was positively associated with levels of T follicular helper cells (TFH) (R = .48, p < .001), T helper type 2 (Th2) cells (R = .47, p < .001), macrophages (R = .41, p ≤ .001), T helper cells (R = .40, p < .001), T helper type 1 (Th1) cells (R = .38, p < .001), T cells (R = .34, p < .001), NK CD56bright cells (R = .34, p < .001) and immature DC (iDC) (R = .33, p < .001), and negatively associated with levels of T helper 17 (Th17) cells. Also, MARCKS may influence the M2 polarization and immune escape.

CONCLUSION

The present study suggests that MARCKS on TAMs is associated with poor prognosis and immune cell infiltration in HCC.