Pyrimidines: Molecular docking and inhibition studies on carbonic anhydrase and cholinesterases

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder. The disease is characterized by dementia, memory impairment, cognitive impairment, and speech impairment. Cholinesterases (ChEs; AChE, acetylcholinesterase and BChE, butyrylcholinesterase) inhibitors and their benefits of cholinergic replacement in the treatment of AD have been researched and documented by scientists in various ways to date. Recent studies prove that human carbonic anhydrases (hCAs) are also one of the important targets in the treatment of AD. Therefore, the development of new agents that can simultaneously modulate the various mechanisms or targets involved in the AD pathway may be a powerful strategy to treat AD, the current disease. Considering these data, the effects of the pyrimidines (1-7) were investigated in this study for the discovery and development of multitargeted ChEs and hCAs inhibitors associated with AD. In addition, the molecular docking analysis of the 4-amino-2-choloropyrimidine (2) was performed to understand the binding interactions on the active site of the enzyme. All compounds (1-7) showed satisfactory enzyme inhibitory potency in micromolar concentrations against AChE, BChE, hCAI, and hCAII with K_I values ranging from 0.099 to 0.241 μM, from 1.324 to 3.418 μM, from 0.201 to 0.884 μM, from 1.867 to 3.913 μM, respectively. Due to their ChEs and hCAs inhibition, these compounds (1-7) may be considered as leads for investigations in neurodegenerative diseases. All these results revealed that the 4-amino-5,6-dichloropyrimidine (7) (K_I value of 0.201 ± 0.041 μM for hCA I), the 4-amino-6-hydroxypyrimidine (4) (K_I value of 1.867 ± 0.296 μM for hCA II), the 4-amino-5,6-dichloropyrimidine (7) (K_I value of 0.099 ± 0.008 μM for AChE), and the 4-amino-2-chloropyrimidine (2) (K_I value of 1.324 ± 0.273 μM for BChE) from the pyrimidines in this series were the most promising derivatives, as they exhibited a good multifunctional inhibition at all experimental levels and in the in silico validation against these enzymes, for the treatment of AD.

Recombinant human carbonic anhydrase VII: Purification, characterization, inhibition, and molecular docking studies

Human carbonic anhydrase VII (hCA VII), a cytosolic enzyme, defends against oxidative stress by preventing reactive oxygen species from forming. In our study, first, hCA VII was cloned into Escherichia coli (One Shot Mach1-T1R) strain by using cDNA of the human brain and successfully expressed. The integrity of the plasmid generated by colony PCR was checked, and after, for protein expression, the plasmid was transformed into E. coli BL21 (DE-3) strain. hCA VII expression was observed after 6 h of isopropyl-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) induction. The fusion protein containing hexahistidine (6xHis) was purified with 7.02 EU/mg of specific activity, had 48.07% of purification yield, and approximately 21-folds using a ProbondTM nickel chelating resin affinity column. Then, both molecular mass determination and purity control of the purified recombinant enzyme was done by SDS-PAGE (sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis). The mass of the SUMO-hCA VII fusion protein was calculated as 46.77 kDa. As a result of Western blot analysis using anti-His G-HRP antibody, the fusion protein was detected as approximately 45 kDa. Furthermore, the characterization assays and in vitro inhibition studies were done for the recombinant enzyme. K_I values of these agents were found between 0.29 μM and 157.6 mM. Finally, molecular docking investigations of these antibiotics were undertaken to understand further the binding interactions on the active site of this recombinant enzyme.

Ophthalmic drugs: in vitro paraoxonase 1 inhibition and molecular docking studies

Glaucoma is a neuropathy disorder and is generally treated by drugs. Allergic conjunctivitis is a common ophthalmologic disease. Paraoxonase 1 (PON1) is an organophosphate hydrolyzer and antiatherogenic enzyme. PON1 is known for preventing atherosclerosis through lipid-modifying features, as well as which has decisive actions of antiapoptosis, anti-inflammatory, antithrombosis, and antiadhesion antioxidant activity properties. Thus, reducing the enzyme levels in hyperthyroidism, chronic renal failure, glaucoma, diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular diseases is a significant risk. This study was tested some ophthalmic drugs used to treat the diseases, such as glaucoma and allergic conjunctivitis, mentioned above, travoprost, latanoprost, ketotifen, emedastine, and olopatadine, for their inhibition activities against PON1. These drugs displayed the potent inhibition effect with IC₅₀ values ranging between 14.95 ± 0.15 and 299.60 ± 4.07 μM and K_I constants ranging from 9.71 ± 2.63 to 261.50 ± 59.98 μM. Besides, the molecular docking analyses of the competitive inhibitors, travoprost, emedastine, and olopatadine, were performed to understand the binding interactions on the enzyme's binding site. According to both in vitro and in silico analysis results, travoprost had the most potent effect on PON1 enzyme activity.

Biological evaluation and in silico study of benzohydrazide derivatives as paraoxonase 1 inhibitors

Serum paraoxonase 1 (PON1) is found in all mammalian species and is a calcium-dependent hydrolytic enzyme. PON1 hydrolyze several substrates, including carbonates, esters, and organophosphates. In the current study, we aimed to investigate the effect of the presynthesized benzohydrazide derivatives (1-9) on PON1 activity. Benzohydrazide compounds moderate inhibited PON1 with the half-maximal inhibitory concentration values ranging from 76.04 ± 13.51 to 221.70 ± 13.59 μM and K_I values ranging from 38.75 ± 12.21 to 543.50 ± 69.76 μM. Compound 4 (2-amino-4-chlorobenzohydrazide) showed the best inhibition (K_I  = 38.75 ± 12.21 μM). Molecular docking and ADME-Tox studies of benzohydrazide derivatives were also carried out. In this context, we hope that the results obtained in this study contribute to the determination of the side effects of current and new benzohydrazide-based pharmacological compounds to be developed.

Methyl benzoate derivatives: in vitro Paraoxonase 1 inhibition and in silico studies

Paraoxonase 1 (PON1) can metabolize some compounds such as aromatic carboxylic acid and unsaturated aliphatic esters, arylesters, cyclic carbonate, plucuronide drugs, some carbamate insecticide classes, nerve gases, and lactone compounds. Methyl benzoate has recently been shown to display potent toxicity against several insect species. In the current study, we aimed to investigate the effect of the methyl benzoate compounds (1-17) on PON1 activity. Methyl benzoate compounds inhibited PON1 with K_I values ranging from 25.10 ± 4.73 to 502.10 ± 64.72 μM. Compound 10 (methyl 4-amino-2-bromo benzoate) showed the best inhibition (K_I  = 25.10 ± 4.73 μM). Furthermore, using the ADME-Tox, Glide XP, and MM-GBSA tools of the Schrödinger Suite 2021-4, a complete ligand-receptor interaction prediction was performed to characterize the methyl benzoates (1-17), probable binding modalities versus the PON1.

Synthesis, biological evaluation, and in silico study of novel library sulfonates containing quinazolin-4(3H)-one derivatives as potential aldose reductase inhibitors

A series of novel sulfonates containing quinazolin-4(3H)-one ring derivatives was designed to inhibit aldose reductase (ALR2, EC 1.1.1.21). Novel quinazolinone derivatives (1-21) were synthesized from the reaction of sulfonated aldehydes with 3-amino-2-alkylquinazolin-4(3H)-ones in glacial acetic acid with good yields (85%-94%). The structures of the novel molecules were characterized using IR, 1 H-NMR, 13 C-NMR, and HRMS. All the novel quinazolinones (1-21) demonstrated nanomolar levels of inhibitory activity against ALR2 (KI s are in the range of 101.50-2066.00 nM). Besides, 4-[(2-isopropyl-4-oxoquinazolin-3[4H]-ylimino)methyl]phenyl benzenesulfonate (15) showed higher inhibitor activity inhibited ALR2 up to 7.7-fold compared to epalrestat, a standard inhibitor. Binding interactions between ALR2 and quinazolinones have been investigated using Schrödinger Small-Molecule Drug Discovery Suite 2021-1, reported possible inhibitor-ALR2 interactions. Both in vitro and in silico study results suggest that these quinazolin-4(3H)-one ring derivatives (1-21) require further molecular modification to improve their drug nominee potency as an ALR2 inhibitor.

Methionine 58 is a key residue in the modulation of BmK scorpion toxin AGP-SYPU2 activity through in silico and in vivo studies

Protein dynamic networks play an important role in the regulation of many protein systems. Some residues that are far away from the interface between proteins and their targets have a critical role in modulating the activity of some scorpion toxins. Here, conservation analysis combined with an in vivo experiment has reveals that Met58 is a key residue of BmK scorpion toxin AGP-SYPU2 in the modulation of analgesic activity. Molecular dynamics simulations clearly reveal the conformational changes that allow the loop between the β2 and β3 sheets to be exposed on the toxin surface to interact with its targets. Our results emphasize specific roles for the residue Met58 in the NC domain and our work gives valuable information for further modification of scorpion toxins to obtain new analgesic peptides with enhanced activity. Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Novel metabolic enzyme inhibitors designed through the molecular hybridization of thiazole and pyrazoline scaffolds

New hybrid thiazolyl-pyrazoline derivatives (4a-k) were obtained through a facile and versatile synthetic procedure, and their inhibitory effects on the human carbonic anhydrase (hCA) isoforms I and II as well as on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) were determined. All new thiazolyl-pyrazolines showed activity at nanomolar levels as hCA I, hCA II, and AChE inhibitors, with K_I values in the range of 13.35-63.79, 7.01-115.80, and 17.89-48.05 nM, respectively. 1-[4-(4-Cyanophenyl)thiazol-2-yl]-3-(4-piperidinophenyl)-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-pyrazoline (4f) and 1-(4-phenylthiazol-2-yl)-3-(4-piperidinophenyl)-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-pyrazoline (4a) against hCAs and 1-[4-(4-chlorophenyl)thiazol-2-yl]-3-(4-piperidinophenyl)-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-pyrazoline (4d) and 1-[4-(4-nitrophenyl)thiazol-2-yl]-3-(4-piperidinophenyl)-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-pyrazoline (4b) against AChE were identified as highly potent inhibitors, superior to the standard drugs, acetazolamide and tacrine, respectively. Compounds 4a-k were also evaluated for their cytotoxic effects on the L929 mouse fibroblast (normal) cell line. Moreover, a comprehensive ligand-receptor interaction prediction was performed using the ADME-Tox, Glide XP, and MM-GBSA modules of the Schrödinger Small-Molecule Drug Discovery Suite to elucidate the potential binding modes of the new hybrid inhibitors against these metabolic enzymes.

Benzenesulfonamide derivatives as potent acetylcholinesterase, α-glycosidase, and glutathione S-transferase inhibitors: biological evaluation and molecular docking studies

Sulfonamide derivatives exhibit a wide biological activity and can function as potential medical molecules in the development of a drug. Studies have reported that the compounds have an effect on many enzymes. In this study, the derivatives of amine sulfonamide (1i-11i) were prepared with reduced imine compounds (1-11) with NaBH4 in methanol. The synthesized compounds were fully characterized by spectral data and analytical. The effect of the synthesized derivatives on acetylcholinesterase (AChE), glutathione S-transferase (GST) and α-glycosidase (α-GLY) enzymes were determined. For the AChE and α-GLY, the most powerful inhibition was observed on 10 and 10i series with KI value in the range 2.26 ± 0.45-3.57 ± 0.97 and 95.73 ± 13.67-102.45 ± 11.72 µM, respectively. KI values of the series for GST were found in the range of 22.76 ± 1.23-49.29 ± 4.49. Finally, the compounds have a stronger inhibitor in lower concentrations by the attachment of functional electronegative groups such as two halogens (-Br and -CI), -OH to the benzene ring and -SO2NH2. The crystal structures of AChE, α-GLY, and GST in complex with selected derivatives 4 and 10 show the importance of the functional moieties in the binding modes within the receptors.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

A new series of 2,4-thiazolidinediones endowed with potent aldose reductase inhibitory activity

In an effort to identify potent aldose reductase (AR) inhibitors, 5-(arylidene)thiazolidine-2,4-diones (1–8), which were prepared by the solvent-free reaction of 2,4-thiazolidinedione with aromatic aldehydes in the presence of urea, were examined for their in vitro AR inhibitory activities and cytotoxicity. 5-(2-Hydroxy-3-methylbenzylidene)thiazolidine-2,4-dione (3) was the most potent AR inhibitor in this series, exerting uncompetitive inhibition with a K i value of 0.445 ± 0.013 µM. The IC50 value of compound 3 for L929 mouse fibroblast cells was determined as 8.9 ± 0.66 µM, pointing out its safety as an AR inhibitor. Molecular docking studies suggested that compound 3 exhibited good affinity to the binding site of AR (PDB ID: 4JIR). Based upon in silico absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion data, the compound is predicted to have favorable pharmacokinetic features. Taking into account the in silico and in vitro data, compound 3 stands out as a potential orally bioavailable AR inhibitor for the management of diabetic complications as well as nondiabetic diseases.

The effect of brimonidine and proparacaine on metabolic enzymes: Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, and glutathione reductase

Oxidative stress is to upregulate the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP). The PPP consists of two functional branches, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) and 6-phosphogluconaste dehydrogenase (6PGD). Glutathione reductase (GR) has a significant role in catalyzing an oxidized glutathione form into a reduced form. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of brimonidine and proparacaine on the activity of 6PGD, G6PD, and GR enzymes purified from human erythrocytes. Brimonidine displayed considerable inhibition profile against G6PD with IC₅₀ value and K_I constant of 29.93 ± 3.56 and 48.46 ± 0.66 μM, respectively. On the other hand, proparacaine had no inhibitory effect against G6PD. K_I values were found to be 66.06 ± 0.78 and 811.50 ± 11.13 μM for brimonidine and proparacaine, respectively, for 6PGD. K_I values were found to be 144.10 ± 2.01 and 1,654.00 ± 26.29 μM for brimonidine and proparacaine, respectively, for GR. Herein, also in silico molecular docking studies were performed between drugs and enzymes.

Synthesis, characterisation, biological evaluation and in silico studies of sulphonamide Schiff bases

Sulphonamides are biologically important compounds with low toxicity, many bioactivities and cost-effectiveness. Eight sulphonamide derivatives were synthesised and characterised by FT-IR, ¹³C NMR, ¹H NMR, LC-MS and elemental analysis. Their inhibitory effect on AChE, and carbonic anhydrase I and II enzyme activities was investigated. Their antioxidant activity was determined using different bioanalytical assays such as radical scavenging tests with ABTS^•+, and DPPH^•+ as well as metal-reducing abilities with CUPRAC, and FRAP assays. All compounds showed satisfactory enzyme inhibitory potency in nanomolar concentrations against AChE and CA isoforms with K_I values ranging from 10.14 ± 0.03 to 100.58 ± 1.90 nM. Amine group containing derivatives showed high metal reduction activity and about 70% ABTS radical scavenging activity. Due to their antioxidant activity and AChE inhibition, these novel compounds may be considered as leads for investigations in neurodegenerative diseases.

Novel benzoic acid derivatives: Synthesis and biological evaluation as multitarget acetylcholinesterase and carbonic anhydrase inhibitors

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by dementia, memory impairment, cognitive dysfunction, and speech impairment. The utility of cholinergic replacement by acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors in AD treatment has been well documented so far. Recently, studies have also evidenced that human carbonic anhydrases (hCAs) serve as an important target for AD treatment. In this direction, the improvement of new multitarget drugs, which can simultaneously modulate several mechanisms or targets included in the AD pathway, may be a potent strategy to treat AD. In light of these data for understanding and developing AD-related multitarget AChE and hCAs inhibitors, in this study, novel methylene-aminobenzoic acid and tetrahydroisoquinolynyl-benzoic acid derivatives (4a-g and 6a-g) were designed. The synthesized analogs were experimentally validated for their effects by in vitro and direct enzymatic tests. Also, the compounds were subjected to in silico monitoring with Schrödinger Suite software to assign binding affinities of potential derivatives based on Glide XP scoring, molecular mechanics-generalized Born surface area computing, and validation by molecular docking. The results revealed that 6c (1,3-dimethyldihydropyrimidine-2,4-(1H,3H)-dione-substituted, K_I  value of 33.00 ± 0.29 nM), 6e (cyclohexanone-substituted, K_I  value of 18.78 ± 0.09 nM), and 6f (2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dioxan-4-one-substituted, K_I  value of 13.62 ± 0.21 nM) from the benzoic acid derivatives in this series were the most promising derivatives, as they exhibited a good multifunctional inhibition at all experimental levels and in the in silico validation against hCA I, hCA II, and AChE, respectively, for the treatment of AD.

Molecular Docking Studies and Inhibition Properties of Some Antineoplastic Agents against Paraoxonase-I

Background:

Currently, most of the drugs used in clinical applications show their pharmacological influences by inhibiting or activating enzymes. Therefore, enzyme inhibitors have an essential place in the drug design for many diseases.

Objective:

The current study aimed to contribute to this growing drug design field (i.e., medicine discovery and development) by analyzing enzyme-drug interactions.

Methods:

For this reason, Paraoxonase-I (PON1) enzyme was purified from fresh human serum by using rapid chromatographic techniques. Additionally, the inhibition effects of some antineoplastic agents were researched on the PON1.

Results:

The enzyme was obtained with a specific activity of 2603.57 EU/mg protein. IC50 values for pemetrexed disodium, irinotecan hydrochloride, dacarbazine, and azacitidine were determined to be 9.63μM, 30.13μM, 53.31μM, and 21.00mM, respectively. These agents found to strongly inhibit PON1, with Ki constants ranging from 8.29±1.47μM to 23.34±2.71mM. Dacarbazine and azacitidine showed non-competitive inhibition, while other drugs showed competitive inhibition. Furthermore, molecular docking was performed using maestro for these agents. Among these, irinotecan hydrochloride and pemetrexed disodium possess the binding energy of -5.46 and -8.43 kcal/mol, respectively.

Conclusion:

The interaction studies indicated that these agents with the PON1 possess binding affinity.

Synthesis, characterization, inhibition effects, and molecular docking studies as acetylcholinesterase, α-glycosidase, and carbonic anhydrase inhibitors of novel benzenesulfonamides incorporating 1,3,5-triazine structural motifs

Some metabolic enzyme inhibitors can be used in the treatment of many diseases. Therefore, synthesis and determination of alternative inhibitors are essential. In this study, the inhibition effect of newly synthesized compounds on carbonic anhydrase (cytosolic isoforms, hCA I and hCA II), α-glycosidase (α-GLY), and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) were investigated. The possible binding mechanism of the compounds with a high inhibitory effect on the active site of the enzyme was demonstrated by molecular docking method. We investigated the inhibition effects of novel synthesized compounds (MZ1-MZ11) on metabolic enzymes such as α-GLY, AChE, and hCA I and II. The compound MZ6 for AChE, MZ8 for CA I and CA II and MZ7 for α-GLY showed a very active inhibition profile (KIs 51.67 ± 4.76 for hCA I, 40.35 ± 5.74 nM for hCA II, 41.74 ± 8.08 nM for α-GLY and 335.76 ± 46.91 nM for AChE). The novel synthesized compounds (MZ1-MZ11) have a higher enzyme (α-GLY, AChE, hCA I, and II) inhibitory potential than ACR, TAC, and AZA, respectively. The compounds may have the potential to be used as alternative medicines after further research in the treatment of many diseases such as diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, heart failure, ulcer, and epilepsy.

Benzenesulfonamide derivatives containing imine and amine groups: Inhibition on human paraoxonase and molecular docking studies

Sulfonamides known as inhibitors of many metabolic enzymes have been widely used as antimicrobial drugs for a long time. In the present study, we investigated in vitro inhibitory activities of benzenesulfonamide derivatives on human paraoxonase-I (hPON1). For this aim, PON1 was purified from human serum with a specific activity of 2603.57 EU/mg and 8.34% yield using simple chromatographic methods. The various concentrations of early-synthesized sixteen sulfonamide derivatives were tested on the paraoxonase activity. Ki values of compounds were found in the range of 0.28-357.70 µM. Compound H4 had the highest inhibitory activity on hPON1 as competitive. Estimated structure-activity relationship (SAR) for compounds was done based on different substituents and their positions in the compounds. Besides, the molecular docking analysis of compound H4 was performed to understand the binding interactions on the active site of the enzyme. According to these experimental results, compound H4 was a potential inhibitor of PON1.

A potential risk factor for paraoxonase 1: in silico and in-vitro analysis of the biological activity of proton-pump inhibitors†

Objectives

Proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs) are drugs commonly utilized by about 7% of adults in the world. Recent researches have shown that there are countless and severe side effects of these drugs. This situation has raised concern among clinicians and patients alike. The purpose of this study is to contribute the novel drug discovery and development technology and toxicology field by researching interactions of PPIs on paraoxonase 1.

Methods

In this study, the paraoxonase 1 enzyme was purified from human serum by using rapid and straightforward chromatographic techniques. Subsequently, the inhibition effects of pantoprazole, omeprazole, and esomeprazole, PPIs, were investigated on paraoxonase 1. Besides, molecular docking studies were performed to unravel the binding mechanism between the enzyme and drugs.

Key findings

All drugs showed potent inhibitory activities. IC50 of the drugs values were 54.780 ± 0.524, 86.470 ± 0.818 and 93.390 ± 0.885 mm and Ki constants were found as 39.895 ± 0.005 mm, 70.112 ± 0.010 mm and 78.868 ± 0.008 mm, respectively. The binding scores observed in silico studies were found to agree with the obtained from in-vitro experimental results.

Conclusions

We observed that the drugs decreased PON1 activity at low concentrations. The results show that adjusting the dosages of these medications is a crucial case for each patient. The physicians should more carefully interpret whether there is an essential indication before prescribing PPIs and, if there is, to approve the proper dosing for the situation.