Cost of illness of glaucoma: a critical and systematic review

HPLC-LED-Induced Fluorescence Analysis of Tear Fluids: An Objective Method for Primary Open Angle Glaucoma Diagnosis

PURPOSE

The study showcased the application of the lab-assembled HPLC-LED-IF system to analyze proteins in tear fluid samples collected from individuals diagnosed with primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG).

METHODS

Clinical application of the said technique was evaluated by recording chromatograms of tear fluid samples from control and POAG subjects and by analyzing the protein profile using multivariate analysis. The data analysis methods involved are principal component analysis (PCA), Match/No-Match, and artificial neural network (ANN) based binary classification for disease diagnosis.

RESULTS

Mahalanobis distance and spectral residual values calculated using a standard calibration set of clinically confirmed POAG samples for the Match/No-Match test gave 86.9% sensitivity and 81.8% specificity. ANN with leaving one out procedure has given 87.1% sensitivity and 81.8% specificity.

CONCLUSION

The results of the study revealed that the utilization of a 278 nm LED excitation in the HPLC system offers good sensitivity for detecting proteins at low concentrations allowing to obtain reliable protein profiles for the diagnosis of POAG.

Survival of Visual Function in Patients with Advanced Glaucoma after Standard Guarded Trabeculectomy with MMC

Surgical intervention in patients with severe glaucoma remains controversial, especially in unilateral cases with a minimally affected fellow eye. Many question the benefit of trabeculectomy in such cases due to high complication rates and prolonged recovery. In this retrospective, non-comparative, interventional case series we aimed to determine the effect of trabeculectomy or combined phaco-trabeculectomy on the visual function of advanced glaucoma patients. Consecutive cases with perimetric mean deviation loss worse than -20 dB were included. Survival of visual function according to five predetermined visual acuity and perimetric criteria was set as the primary outcome. Qualified surgical success utilizing two different sets of criteria commonly used in the literature constituted secondary outcomes. Forty eyes with average baseline visual field mean deviation -26.3 ± 4.1 dB were identified. The average pre-operative intraocular pressure was 26.5 ± 11.4 mmHg and decreased to 11.4 ± 4.0 mmHg (p < 0.001) after an average follow-up of 23.3 ± 15.5 months. Visual function was preserved at two years in 77% or 66% of eyes respectively according to two different sets of visual acuity and perimetric criteria. Qualified surgical success was 89%, 72% at 1 and 3 years respectively. Trabeculectomy and/or phaco-trabeculectomy is associated with meaningful visual outcomes in patients with uncontrolled advanced glaucoma.

Postoperative Pain after Different Transscleral Laser Cyclophotocoagulation Procedures

BACKGROUND

As the number of surgical options in glaucoma treatment is continuously rising, evidence regarding distinctive features of these surgeries is becoming more and more important for clinicians to choose the right surgical treatment for each individual patient.

METHODS

For this retrospective data analysis, we included glaucoma patients treated with either continuous wave (CW-TSCPC) or micropulse transscleral cyclophotocoagulation (MP-TSCPC) in an inpatient setting. Pain intensity was assessed using a numeric rating scale (NRS) ranging from 0 (no pain) to 10 (worst imaginable pain) during hospitalization. CW-TSCPC was performed using OcuLight^® Six (IRIDEX Corporation, Mountain View, CA, USA) and MP-TSCPC was performed using the IRIDEX^® Cyclo-G6 System (IRIDEX Corporation, Mountain View, CA, USA).

RESULTS

A total of 243 consecutive cases of TSCPC were included. Of these, 144 (59.26%) were treated with CW-TSCPC and 99 (40.74%) with MP-TSCPC. Using the univariable model, the risk for postoperative pain was observed to be lower in MP-TSCPC compared with CW-TSCPC (unadjusted: OR 0.46, 95% CI 0.24-0.84, p = 0.017), but this did not hold using the multivariable model (adjusted: OR 0.52, 95% CI 0.27-1.02, p = 0.056). Simultaneously conducted anterior retinal cryotherapy was associated with a higher risk for postoperative pain (OR 4.41, 95% CI 2.01-9.69, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

We found that the occurrence of postoperative pain was not different in CW-TSCPC compared with MP-TSCPC in a multivariable model. In cases of simultaneous anterior retinal cryotherapy, the risk for postoperative pain was significantly higher.

Cost-effectiveness of primary surgical versus primary medical management in the treatment of patients presenting with advanced glaucoma

SYNOPSIS

Advanced glaucoma is associated with sight loss. This within-trial economic evaluation compares medical and surgical management strategies. At 2 years, medication appears more cost-effective though longitudinal outcomes are an important subject in future research.

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Open angle glaucoma (OAG) is a progressive optic neuropathy. Approximately 25% of newly diagnosed patients with OAG present with advanced disease in at least one eye. The vision loss associated with OAG can lead to significant impacts on vision, quality of life and health care resources. The Treatment of Advanced Glaucoma Study is a randomised controlled trial comparing the effectiveness of primary surgical and medical management for newly diagnosed advanced patients with OAG. An economic evaluation was carried out to understand the costs and benefits of each strategy.

METHODS

A cost utility analysis was carried out from a National Health Service perspective over a 2-year time horizon inclusive of patient costs. The primary outcome was patient health-related quality of life measured by the EQ-5D-5L, Health Utilities Index 3 (HUI3) and Glaucoma Utility Index (GUI). Results were expressed as incremental cost per QALY gained.

RESULTS

Trabeculectomy was associated with higher costs and greater effect, the EQ-5D-5L results have an incremental cost per QALY of £45,456. The likelihood of surgery being cost-effective at a £20, 000, £30,000 and £50,000 QALY threshold is 0%, 12% and 56%, respectively. The results for the HUI3, GUI and inclusion of patient costs do not change the conclusions of the study.

CONCLUSION

This is the first study to evaluate management strategies for those presenting with advanced glaucoma. At a 2-year time horizon, medication is the more cost-effective approach for managing glaucoma. Future research can focus on the costs and benefits of the treatments over a longer time horizon.

Glaucoma Suspects: The Impact of Risk Factor-Driven Review Periods on Clinical Load, Diagnoses, and Healthcare Costs

Purpose

To model the healthcare impact (clinical attendance time and financial cost) and clinical outcomes (glaucoma diagnoses) of different risk factor–driven review frequencies for glaucoma suspect patients up until the point of discharge or diagnosis.

Methods

Medical records of 494 glaucoma suspects were examined to extract the clinical diagnosis. Two criteria for review periods were defined, based on contrasting stringency from established clinical guidelines: American Academy of Ophthalmology (AAO), more stringent/less frequent; and the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), less stringent/more frequent. We used these data to model patient outcomes and healthcare costs using a Markov model.

Results

The less stringent/more frequent criterion resulted in more high-risk glaucoma suspects requiring more frequent review compared with the more stringent/less frequent criterion. Across the 15 Markov cycles (7.5 years), the less stringent/more frequent review criterion resulted in 6.6% more diagnoses and fewer overall clinical visits (14.7%) and reduced cost per diagnosis by 12% to 32% (P < 0.0001). The number of glaucoma diagnoses made using each criterion converged at 2.5 to 3 years.

Conclusions

The stringency of risk assessments for glaucoma suspects impacts review periods and therefore clinical load, healthcare costs, and diagnosis rates. Using current testing methods, more frequent review periods appear advantageous for diagnostic efficiency, with both lower clinic load and lower cost up until the point of discharge or glaucoma diagnosis.

Translational Relevance

A less stringent criterion for assessing the risk of developing glaucoma potentially offers a more cost-effective method for reviewing glaucoma suspects, especially within the first 2.5 years.

Ambulatory and hospital care of glaucoma in Spain and associated medical costs

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to analyze the impact of glaucoma in ambulatory centers and hospitals in Spain over the past decade, in terms of incidence and medical costs.

METHODS

Administrative data of glaucoma patients from ambulatory centers and hospitals in Spain and registered between 2011 and 2020 was obtained from a Spanish National discharge database. Medical costs obtained were based on the diagnosis-related group-based hospital payment systems, determined by the Spanish Ministry of Health.

RESULTS

Data from 100,734 ambulatory care visits and 11,408 hospital admissions related to glaucoma were obtained from the database. Most of the cases were registered in patients over 65 years of age. The incidence of glaucoma in ambulatory centers was 2.2 per 10,000 persons over the study period; in hospitals, the incidence was 0.2 per 10,000 persons. The incidence of glaucoma in ambulatory settings increased significantly over the study period, while the incidence in hospitals decreased over the same period. Most ambulatory visits and hospital admissions were programmed or non-urgent. The mean cost per ambulatory visit was €954, €5.5 million in total annually; the mean cost per hospital admission was €3,727, €4.1 million in total annually. The annual cost of ambulatory care increased significantly over the study period, while the annual cost of hospital care decreased significantly.

CONCLUSIONS

The medical costs of glaucoma in Spanish hospitals decreased over the study period, while the costs of ambulatory care increased. This shift in the management of glaucoma should be considered in future resource allocation decisions.

Primary trabeculectomy for advanced glaucoma: pragmatic multicentre randomised controlled trial (TAGS)

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether primary trabeculectomy or primary medical treatment produces better outcomes in term of quality of life, clinical effectiveness, and safety in patients presenting with advanced glaucoma.

DESIGN

Pragmatic multicentre randomised controlled trial.

SETTING

27 secondary care glaucoma departments in the UK.

PARTICIPANTS

453 adults presenting with newly diagnosed advanced open angle glaucoma in at least one eye (Hodapp classification) between 3 June 2014 and 31 May 2017.

INTERVENTIONS

Mitomycin C augmented trabeculectomy (n=227) and escalating medical management with intraocular pressure reducing drops (n=226) MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Primary outcome: vision specific quality of life measured with Visual Function Questionnaire-25 (VFQ-25) at 24 months.

SECONDARY OUTCOMES

general health status, glaucoma related quality of life, clinical effectiveness (intraocular pressure, visual field, visual acuity), and safety.

RESULTS

At 24 months, the mean VFQ-25 scores in the trabeculectomy and medical arms were 85.4 (SD 13.8) and 84.5 (16.3), respectively (mean difference 1.06, 95% confidence interval -1.32 to 3.43; P=0.38). Mean intraocular pressure was 12.4 (SD 4.7) mm Hg for trabeculectomy and 15.1 (4.8) mm Hg for medical management (mean difference -2.8 (-3.8 to -1.7) mm Hg; P<0.001). Adverse events occurred in 88 (39%) patients in the trabeculectomy arm and 100 (44%) in the medical management arm (relative risk 0.88, 95% confidence interval 0.66 to 1.17; P=0.37). Serious side effects were rare.

CONCLUSION

Primary trabeculectomy had similar quality of life and safety outcomes and achieved a lower intraocular pressure compared with primary medication.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Health Technology Assessment (NIHR-HTA) Programme (project number: 12/35/38). ISRCTN registry: ISRCTN56878850.

Structural Change Can Be Detected in Advanced-Glaucoma Eyes

Purpose

To compare spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) standard structural measures and a new three-dimensional (3D) volume optic nerve head (ONH) change detection method for detecting change over time in severely advanced-glaucoma (open-angle glaucoma [OAG]) patients.

Methods

Thirty-five eyes of 35 patients with very advanced glaucoma (defined as a visual field mean deviation < −21 dB) and 46 eyes of 30 healthy subjects to estimate aging changes were included. Circumpapillary retinal fiber layer thickness (cpRNFL), minimum rim width (MRW), and macular retinal ganglion cell–inner plexiform layer (GCIPL) thicknesses were measured using the San Diego Automated Layer Segmentation Algorithm (SALSA). Progression was defined as structural loss faster than 95th percentile of healthy eyes. Three-dimensional volume ONH change was estimated using the Bayesian-kernel detection scheme (BKDS), which does not require extensive retinal layer segmentation.

Results

The number of progressing glaucoma eyes identified was highest for 3D volume BKDS (13, 37%), followed by GCPIL (11, 31%), cpRNFL (4, 11%), and MRW (2, 6%). In advanced-OAG eyes, only the mean rate of GCIPL change reached statistical significance, −0.18 μm/y (P = 0.02); the mean rates of cpRNFL and MRW change were not statistically different from zero. In healthy eyes, the mean rates of cpRNFL, MRW, and GCIPL change were significantly different from zero. (all P < 0.001).

Conclusions

Ganglion cell–inner plexiform layer and 3D volume BKDS show promise for identifying change in severely advanced glaucoma. These results suggest that structural change can be detected in very advanced disease. Longer follow-up is needed to determine whether changes identified are false positives or true progression.

Tolerability and efficacy of bimatoprost 0.01 % in patients with open-angle glaucoma or ocular hypertension evaluated in the Taiwanese clinical setting: the Asia Pacific Patterns from Early Access of Lumigan 0.01 % (APPEAL Taiwan) study

BACKGROUND

In randomized, controlled trials of open-angle glaucoma (OAG) or ocular hypertension (OHT), bimatoprost 0.01 % improved tolerability while retaining the intraocular pressure (IOP)-lowering efficacy of bimatoprost 0.03 %. Given geographic/racial differences in glaucoma presentation, the APPEAL study assessed the occurrence and severity of hyperemia produced by bimatoprost 0.01 %, and its efficacy, in the Taiwanese clinical setting.

METHODS

In this multicenter, open-label, observational study, treatment-naïve and previously treated patients with OHT or OAG received once-daily bimatoprost 0.01 % for 12 weeks. Hyperemia (primary endpoint) was graded at baseline, week 6, and week 12 using a photonumeric scale (0, +0.5, +1, +2, +3), grouped (≤ +1, none to mild; ≥ +2, moderate to severe), and reported as unchanged from baseline, improved, or worsened. IOP assessments followed the same schedule. Supplemental efficacy analyses were conducted based on previous therapies.

RESULTS

The intent-to-treat population (N = 312) included treatment-naïve (13.5 %) and previously treated (86.5 %) patients; mean age was 53.3 years. At baseline, 46.3 % of previously treated patients were receiving prostaglandin analog (PGA) monotherapy. At week 12, 91.2 %, 5.9 %, and 2.9 % of treatment-naïve patients exhibited unchanged, worsened, and improved hyperemia from baseline, respectively; 77.9 %, 12.9 %, and 9.2 % of previously treated patients showed no change, worsening, and improvement, respectively. There were no statistically significant shifts in hyperemia severity in either group, or in subgroups based on previous use of any PGA, any non-PGA, latanoprost, or travoprost monotherapies. In treatment-naïve patients, mean IOP reduction from baseline (18.0 ± 3.8 mm Hg) was 3.6 mm Hg at week 12 (P < 0.0001); 83.3 % had baseline IOP ≤ 21 mm Hg. In previously treated patients, mean additional IOP reduction from baseline (17.8 ± 3.9 mm Hg) was 2.6 mm Hg (P < 0.0001); similar results were observed in patient subgroups based on previous therapies.

CONCLUSIONS

In the Taiwanese clinical setting, bimatoprost 0.01 % provided significant IOP lowering in treatment-naïve patients (regardless of baseline IOP) and previously treated patients (even those with relatively low IOP on other therapies), while causing no significant changes in hyperemia from baseline.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Clinicaltrials.gov NCT01814761 . Registered 18 March 2013.

Management of advanced glaucoma: Characterization and monitoring

Recent advances in glaucoma diagnosis focus on diagnosing the disease in early stages. Despite the importance of such efforts, a meaningful proportion of patients present in advanced stages. The cost for treatment and monitoring of advanced glaucoma often exceeds that with earlier disease, not to mention the significant effect of visual impairment on quality of life. Moreover, structural and functional tests used to monitor changes encounter technical limitations in advanced cases that can delay detection of true progression. New technologies and methods to analyze longitudinal data may prove helpful for monitoring patients with advanced glaucoma and reduce the burdens of the disease.

Feasibility study of sustained-release travoprost punctum plug for intraocular pressure reduction in an Asian population

Purpose

To investigate the efficacy and safety of a punctum plug-based sustained drug release system for a prostaglandin analog, travoprost (OTX-TP), for intraocular pressure (IOP) reduction in an Asian population.

Methods

This is an initial feasibility, prospective, single-arm study involving 26 eyes and a bioresorbable punctum plug containing OTX-TP. An OTX-TP was placed in the vertical portion of the superior or inferior canaliculus of patients with primary open-angle glaucoma or ocular hypertension. The main outcome measure was the IOP-lowering efficacy of OTX-TP at 3 (8 am) and 10, 20, and 30 days (8 am, 10 am, and 4 pm), compared to baseline.

Results

A total of 26 OTX-TP were inserted for 17 subjects. The mean (standard deviation) age was 57.2 (13.8) years. At 10 days, all plugs were still present, and the IOP reduction from baseline was 6.2 (23%), 5.4 (21%), and 7.5 mmHg (28%) at 8 am, 10 am, and 4 pm, respectively. At 10 days, the mean IOP (standard error of mean) was 21.2 (1.2), 20.4 (0.8), and 19.7 (1.0) at 8 am, 10 am, and 4 pm, respectively, showing no discernible IOP trend during the course of the day. At 30 days, plug retention had declined to 42%, and the overall IOP reduction had decreased to 16%.

Conclusion

The sustained-release OTX-TP is able to reduce IOP by 24% (day 10) and 15.6% (day 30), respectively. It is a potentially well-tolerable ocular hypotensive for glaucoma patients with a history of poor compliance.

The relationship between quality of life and adherence to medication in glaucoma patients in Singapore

PURPOSE

(i) To evaluate the medication adherence rate of glaucoma patients in Singapore. (ii) To evaluate patients' quality of life status. (iii) To explore the factors related to patients' nonadherence to medication.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A cross-sectional, prospective study, using interviewer-administered survey questionnaires. A total of 314 patients were interviewed altogether, of which 175 (55.7%) were male and 139 (44.3%) were female. (i) Patients' medication adherence was assessed using the Reported Adherence to Medication scale. (ii) Patients' beliefs about glaucoma and treatment were evaluated using the Brief Illness Perception Questionnaire and the Beliefs about Medicine-Specific Questionnaire. (iii) Patients' quality of life was evaluated using Glaucoma Symptom Scale and The Glaucoma Quality of Life-15 questionnaire.

RESULTS

Sixty-two (19.7%) patients reported themselves to be adherent to their medication. Male patients (P=0.044) and smokers (P=0.002) were more likely to be nonadherent to their medication regimen. Nonadherent patients were more likely to have (i) more concerns about their glaucoma medications (P=0.000); (ii) less belief in the effects of their medications (P=0.026); (iii) a lower quality of life (higher score of GQOL-15, P=0.014); (iv) less symptoms from their glaucoma (lower score of Glaucoma Symptom Scale, P=0.026); and (v) more effect on their lives from glaucoma (P=0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

The full-adherence rate is low among glaucoma patients. Having less belief in the need for and more concerns about their medication are the 2 factors associated with nonadherence. In the future, effective strategies should be explored to improve patients' beliefs. Nonadherence has an association with decreased quality of life. Strategies to improve adherence will need to deal with these areas.

The role of occupational therapy in vision rehabilitation of individuals with glaucoma

PURPOSE

Specific to individuals with glaucoma: (1) provide an overview of the role of occupational therapists (OTs) as part of the vision rehabilitation team, (2) outline evaluation and intervention approaches provided by OTs, and (3) summarize the evidence to support those intervention approaches.

METHODS

Literature on vision rehabilitation and the typical practice patterns of OTs working with individuals with glaucoma are reviewed and the occupational therapy process is applied to evaluation and intervention approaches. The evidence which supports intervention approaches for individuals with glaucoma is presented.

RESULTS

The strength of the evidence to support common intervention approaches employed by OTs is weak or inconclusive; many studies lack quality methodological rigor. Moderate evidence supports patient education programs and strong evidence supports problem-solving and self-management strategies; this evidence is based on a limited number of studies.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of eye diseases is increasing; knowledge of how visual impairment affects disability will inform resource allocation and development of rehabilitation programs that address the unique needs of individuals with glaucoma. Rehabilitation specialists are key members of the healthcare team aligned to proactively recognize and develop comprehensive rehabilitation programs to maximize individuals' function, quality of life and independence in everyday living.

IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATION

Glaucoma is one of the four major eye diseases that may result in visual impairment leading to disability. Research supports intervention approaches and vision rehabilitation techniques used by occupational therapists to optimize the health and well-being of individuals with glaucoma. Rehabilitation specialists are key members of the healthcare team who need to be alert to subtle behaviors that may be indicative of visual impairment versus attributed to other client factors.

Comparison of resource utilization in the treatment of open-angle glaucoma between two cities in Finland: is more better?

INTRODUCTION

Glaucoma is a progressive optic neuropathy associated with neural rim loss of the optic disc and the retinal nerve fibre layer typically causing visual field (VF) deterioration. Generally, glaucomatous lesions in the eye and in the visual field progress slowly over the years. In population-based cross-sectional studies, the percentage of unilateral or bilateral visual impairment varied between 3-12%. In screening studies, 0.03-2.4% of patients have been found to suffer visual impairment. Glaucoma has previously been associated with substantial healthcare costs and resource consumption attributable to the treatment of the disease. The disease also causes reduction in health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in patients with glaucoma.

OBJECTIVE AND METHODS

This study compares patients with diagnosed open-angle glaucoma from two geographically different regions in Finland. A total of 168 patients were examined, 85 subjects from an area with higher per patient treatment costs (Oulu) and 83 patients from a region with lower per patient treatment costs (Turku). All patients had a history of continuous glaucoma medication use for a period of 11 years. For each patient, the total direct costs from glaucoma treatment were calculated and the total amount of resource consumption was determined from registries and patient records. Each patient underwent a clinical examination with visual field assessment and fundus photography. These data were used to determine the current stage of disease for each patient. Health-related quality of life questionnaire (15D) was used in determining each patient's subjective HRQoL score.

RESULTS

When applying the current diagnostic criteria for open-angle glaucoma, a total of 40% of patients did not to display any structural or functional damage suggesting glaucoma after 11 years of continuous medical treatment and follow-up. Patients with higher glaucoma stage (worse disease) were found to have statistically higher treatment costs compared with those at lower disease stages. Resource consumption was also greater in the patients in higher glaucoma stage. Patients in the Oulu district consumed more resources, and glaucoma treatment was more expensive than in the Turku area. The total treatment cost in Oulu and Turku was 6010 € and 4452 €, respectively, for the whole 11-year period. There was no statistically significant difference in quality-of-life scores between the two areas. No difference was noted between the higher-spending and lower-spending areas in this respect. However, when the population was analysed as a whole, patients with higher glaucoma stage were found to have lower vision-based 15D scores compared with those at lower disease stages. This observation was made also at both districts independently.

CONCLUSIONS

Major cost source in open-angle glaucoma treatment is medication, up to 74% of annual costs. In addition, it seems that higher resource consumption and higher treatment costs do not increase the patients' HRQoL as assessed by the 15D instrument.

Direct cost and predictive factors for treatment in patients with ocular hypertension or early, moderate and advanced primary open-angle glaucoma: the CoGIS study in Germany

BACKGROUND

The main objectives of this analysis were to assess the treatment costs and to identify major cost drivers and factors predicting direct costs in German patients with ocular hypertension (OHT) or primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG).

METHODS

This non-interventional cross-sectional study was conducted in two university hospitals and 13 ophthalmology practices in Germany regions (Bavaria, Rhineland-Palatinate, North Rhine-Westphalia, Hamburg and Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania) between May 2009 and January 2010 to assess resource utilisation in patients with OHT (ICD-10: 40.0) or POAG (ICD-10: 40.1) at early, moderate or advanced stages, according to the European Glaucoma Society classification Guidelines. Treatment patterns and direct costs were evaluated retrospectively for 5 years. Resource utilisation data (medication, hospitalisation, outpatient surgery, visits to ophthalmologists) were abstracted from the charts, and unit costs were applied to estimate direct costs per year (in Euros, 2009), calculated from the perspective of the statutory health insurance in Germany (Gesetzliche Krankenversicherung). Factors predicting costs were assessed in multivariate regression analysis.

RESULTS

One hundred and fifty-four patients (17.5% OHT, 27.9% early, 22.7% moderate, and 31.8% advanced POAG), on average 67 years old (SD 11) were included in the study. Average total annual direct costs per patient for OHT were <euro>226 (SD 117), for early POAG <euro>423 (SD 647), moderate <euro>493 (SD 385) and advanced POAG <euro>809 (SD 877). Glaucoma-related medications and hospitalisation represented the two major components of direct costs, increasing with the progression of glaucoma. In addition to treatment switches (p = 0.0001), factors predictive of an increase in total direct costs included the number of hospital interventions (p < 0.0001), disease-state changes since the start of treatment (p = 0.05), and current disease state (p = 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Direct costs of treatment are higher in glaucoma compared to OHT and further increase in more severe glaucoma states. Additional treatment changes are major contributing factors to the increased treatment costs of glaucoma. If intraocular pressure can be controlled over the long term, progression to moderate and advanced states avoided, and patients remain on initial treatments, treatment costs could decline due to reduced and less expensive healthcare resource utilisation.

Cost-of-illness studies: a guide to critical evaluation

Cost-of-illness (COI) studies aim to assess the economic burden of health problems on the population overall, and they are conducted for an ever widening range of health conditions and geographical settings. While they attract much interest from public health advocates and healthcare policy makers, inconsistencies in the way in which they are conducted and a lack of transparency in reporting have made interpretation difficult, and have ostensibly limited their usefulness. Yet there is surprisingly little in the literature to assist the non-expert in critically evaluating these studies. This article aims to provide non-expert readers with a straightforward guide to understanding and evaluating traditional COI studies. The intention is to equip a general audience with an understanding of the most important issues that influence the validity of a COI study, and the ability to recognize the most common limitations in such work.

Economic considerations of the diagnosis and management for glaucoma in the developed world

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review evaluates the last 18-month literature related to costs and glaucoma. The emphasis is to look at evidence as a big picture and evaluate the critical points and challenges in methodology, current knowledge and future research.

RECENT FINDINGS

On the basis of simulation models, treating glaucoma appears to be cost-effective compared with no treatment. The results of the simulation models are, however, not consistent regarding when to treat ocular hypertension and when comparing different therapeutic interventions. Most models simulated starting treatment with prostaglandins compared with other medications, whereas one study simulated also initial laser therapy which appeared to be cost saving compared with medical therapy. The models utilized input data both from randomized controlled trials (ideal outcomes) and observational studies (with incomplete and selective reporting). Models suffer from unreliability of data, for example data from randomized diagnostic trials, empirical data of utility values and glaucoma-induced visual disability are limited.

SUMMARY

As the number of economic evaluations increases, the interpretation and evaluation of their extensive reporting appears very challenging. The published studies highlight the range of uncertainties due to the shortages of our current knowledge and evidence. There is a need for reliable and 'realistic' data for economic evaluations, preferably data from pragmatic randomized trials of 'usual patients'. Similar to emphasizing the cost-effectiveness of care, there is a need to evaluate the expected payback and cost-effectiveness of research interventions. However, even high-quality evidence cannot help our patients if we do not adopt cost-effective interventions.