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Keenum I, Medina MC, Garner E, Pieper KJ, Blair MF, Milligan E, Pruden A, Ramirez-Toro G, Rhoads WJ. Source-to-Tap Assessment of Microbiological Water Quality in Small Rural Drinking Water Systems in Puerto Rico Six Months After Hurricane Maria. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:3775-3785. [PMID: 33645970 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c08814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Maria made a landfall in Puerto Rico on September 20, 2017 as a category 4 hurricane, causing severe flooding, widespread electricity outages, damage to infrastructure, and interruptions in water and wastewater treatment. Small rural community water systems face unique challenges in providing drinking water, which intensify after natural disasters. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the functionality of six very small rural public water systems and one large regulated system in Puerto Rico six months after Maria and survey a broad sweep of fecal, zoonotic, and opportunistic pathogens from the source to tap. Samples were collected from surface and groundwater sources, after water treatment and after distribution to households. Genes indicative of pathogenic Leptospira spp. were detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in all systems reliant on surface water sources. Salmonella spp. was detected in surface and groundwater sources and some distribution system water both by culture and PCR. Legionella spp. and Mycobacteria spp. gene numbers measured by quantitative PCR were similar to nonoutbreak conditions in the continental U.S. Amplicon sequencing provided a nontarget screen for other potential pathogens of concern. This study aids in improving future preparedness, assessment, and recovery operations for small rural water systems after natural disasters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ishi Keenum
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
| | - Melitza Crespo Medina
- Center for Environmental Education, Conservation and Research, Inter American University, San Germán, Puerto Rico 00683, United States
| | - Emily Garner
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506, United States
| | - Kelsey J Pieper
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Matthew Forrest Blair
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
| | - Erin Milligan
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
| | - Amy Pruden
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
| | - Graciela Ramirez-Toro
- Center for Environmental Education, Conservation and Research, Inter American University, San Germán, Puerto Rico 00683, United States
| | - William J Rhoads
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
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Crespo-Medina M, Greaves I, Hunter PR, Minnigh H, Ramírez-Toro G. Detection of Shiga toxin-encoding genes in small community water supplies. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2020; 18:937-945. [PMID: 33328365 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2020.236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Shiga toxin (Stx), one of the most potent bacterial toxins known, can cause bloody diarrhea, hemolytic uremic syndrome, kidney failure and death. The aim of this pilot was to investigate the occurrence of Shiga toxin-encoding genes, stx (stx1 and stx2) from total coliform (TC) and E. coli positive samples from small community water systems. After aliquots for TC and E. coli analyses were removed, the remnant volume of the samples was enriched, following a protocol developed for this study. Fifty-two per cent of the samples tested by multiplex PCR were positive for the presence of the stx genes; this percentage was higher in raw water samples. The stx2 gene was more abundant. Testing larger volumes of the samples increase the sensitivity of our assay, providing an alternative protocol for the detection of Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) that might be missed by the TC assay. This study confirms the presence of Stx encoding genes in source and distributed water for all systems sampled and suggests STEC as a potential health risk in small systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melitza Crespo-Medina
- Center for Environmental Education, Conservation and Research, Inter-American University of Puerto Rico, P.O. Box 5100, San German 00683-9801, Puerto Rico E-mail:
| | - Isabel Greaves
- The Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Paul R Hunter
- The Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Harvey Minnigh
- Gabriella and Paul Rosenbaum Foundation, Bryn Mawr, PA, USA
| | - Graciela Ramírez-Toro
- Center for Environmental Education, Conservation and Research, Inter-American University of Puerto Rico, P.O. Box 5100, San German 00683-9801, Puerto Rico E-mail:
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Chikweto A, Veytsman S, Tiwari K, Cash K, Stratton G, Thomas D, Sharma RN. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in asymptomatic small ruminants in Grenada, West Indies. VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY- REGIONAL STUDIES AND REPORTS 2019; 15:100262. [PMID: 30929939 DOI: 10.1016/j.vprsr.2019.100262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2017] [Revised: 01/01/2019] [Accepted: 01/08/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium spp. is a protozoan parasite that causes enteric infection in a wide range of hosts, including livestock and humans. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to estimate the prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in small ruminants in Grenada, West Indies. Fecal samples were collected from 100 sheep and 202 goats from 32 farms. The fecal samples were tested using an Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for qualitative detection of antigens in feces (Diagnostic Automation Inc., USA). The overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. was 19.5% [95% confidence interval (CI): 15.4% to 24.4%] in both sheep and goats. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in sheep and goats was 14% (95% CI: 8.4% to 22.3%) and 22.3% (95% CI: 17.1% to 28.5%), respectively. There was no significant difference in the prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. infection between sheep and goats (p = .42, Fisher's exact test) in Grenada. Of the 32 farms visited, 19 (59.4%) had at least one Cryptosporidium spp. positive animal.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Chikweto
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, St. George's University, St. George's, Grenada.
| | - S Veytsman
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, St. George's University, St. George's, Grenada
| | - K Tiwari
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, St. George's University, St. George's, Grenada
| | - K Cash
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, St. George's University, St. George's, Grenada
| | - G Stratton
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, St. George's University, St. George's, Grenada
| | - D Thomas
- Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries and Environment, Ministerial Complex, Tanteen, St. Georges, Grenada
| | - R N Sharma
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, St. George's University, St. George's, Grenada
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Rosado-García FM, Guerrero-Flórez M, Karanis G, Hinojosa MDC, Karanis P. Water-borne protozoa parasites: The Latin American perspective. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2017; 220:783-798. [PMID: 28460996 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2017] [Revised: 03/18/2017] [Accepted: 03/18/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Health systems, sanitation and water access have certain limitations in nations of Latin America (LA): typical matters of developing countries. Water is often contaminated and therefore unhealthy for the consumers and users. Information on prevalence and detection of waterborne parasitic protozoa are limited or not available in LA. Only few reports have documented in this field during the last forty years and Brazil leads the list, including countries in South America and Mexico within Central America region and Caribbean islands. From 1979 to 2015, 16 outbreaks of waterborne-protozoa, were reported in Latin American countries. T. gondii and C. cayetanensis were the protozoa, which caused more outbreaks and Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. were the most frequently found protozoa in water samples. On the other hand, Latin America countries have not got a coherent methodology for detection of protozoa in water samples despite whole LA is highly vulnerable to extreme weather events related to waterborne-infections; although Brazil and Colombia have some implemented laws in their surveillance systems. It would be important to coordinate all surveillance systems in between all countries for early detection and measures against waterborne-protozoan and to establish effective and suitable diagnosis tools according to the country's economic strength and particular needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Félix Manuel Rosado-García
- State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Center for Biomedicine and Infectious Diseases, Qinghai Academy of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Qinghai University, Xining, Qinghai, PR China; National Institute of Hygiene, Epidemiology and Microbiology of Cuba, Cuba
| | - Milena Guerrero-Flórez
- State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Center for Biomedicine and Infectious Diseases, Qinghai Academy of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Qinghai University, Xining, Qinghai, PR China; Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Doctorate in Biotechnology, Universidad de Nariño, Research Group of Functional Materials and Catalysis, GIMFC, Colombia
| | - Gabriele Karanis
- State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Center for Biomedicine and Infectious Diseases, Qinghai Academy of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Qinghai University, Xining, Qinghai, PR China; Qinghai University Affiliated Hospital, Xining City, 810016, Qinghai Province, PR China
| | | | - Panagiotis Karanis
- State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Center for Biomedicine and Infectious Diseases, Qinghai Academy of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Qinghai University, Xining, Qinghai, PR China.
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