Penicillium marneffei Infection with β-D-glucan Elevation: A Case Report and Literature Review

Coexisting of Primary Central Nervous System Lymphoma and Talaromyces marneffei Brain Abscess in an AIDS Patient, A Case Report and Review of the Literature

Background

Talaromyces marneffei is prevalent in South Asia. Latent Talaromyces marneffei infection of travellers make the diagnosis difficult. There are similarities in clinical manifestations between Talaromyces marneffei infection and lymphoma. Brain abscess is a rare form of Talaromyces marneffei infection.

Case Presentation

We reported a very rare case of a 19-year-old man with HIV infection who suffered from a brain mass and lymphadenopathy. His blood culture, bone marrow culture and sputum culture all grew Talaromyces marneffei. One month after treatment with voriconazole, the symptoms improved except brain mass. Surgical incision of the brain mass showed a compact mass, and pathological analysis showed the coexisting Talaromyces marneffei abscess and lymphoma. The patient is currently in a stable condition after receiving antifungal therapy and chemotherapy.

Conclusion

Based on a case report of a traveller who suffered from a brain mass of Talaromyces marneffei abscess and lymphoma after a visit to an endemic area, this review summarized the cases where there was confusion between lymphoma and the brain abscess of Talaromyces marneffei. Talaromyces marneffei infection can be found globally due to the increasing number of international travels. Talaromyces marneffei infection and lymphoma had similar characteristics which is easy to misdiagnose in clinic. Infection may also be accompanied by tumors, especially in patients infected with HIV. The manifestations and imaging of brain abscess of Talaromyces marneffei were not characteristic in different patients.

Comparison of the clinical features of HIV-positive and HIV-negative hosts infected with Talaromyces marneffei: A multicenter, retrospective study

OBJECTIVES

Talaromyces marneffei is an emerging pathogen, and the number of infections in HIV-negative individuals is rapidly increasing. Nevertheless, there is no sufficient comprehensive report on this issue, and awareness needs to be raised among clinicians.

METHODS

We analyzed the differences in the clinical data of patients who are HIV-negative and HIV-positive with Talaromyces marneffei infection (TMI) from 2018 to 2022.

RESULTS

A total of 848 patients were included, among whom 104 were HIV-negative. The obvious differences between the HIV-positive and HIV-negative groups were as follows: (i) the patients who are HIV-negative were older and more likely to exhibit cough and rash, (ii) the time in days from symptom onset to diagnosis among patients who are HIV-negative was longer, (iii) the laboratory findings and radiological presentations seemed more severe in patients who are HIV-negative, (iv) differences were observed regarding the underlying conditions and co-infection pathogens, and correlation analysis showed that correlations existed for many indicators, (v) and persistent infection was more likely to occur in patients who are HIV-negative.

CONCLUSION

TMI in patients who are HIV-negative differs from that in patients who are HIV-positive in many aspects, and more investigations are needed. Clinicians should be more aware of TMI in patients who are HIV-negative.

An Overview of Diagnostic and Management Strategies for Talaromycosis, an Underrated Disease

Underrated and neglected, talaromycosis is a life-threatening fungal disease endemic to the tropical and subtropical regions of Asia. In China, it has been reported that talaromycosis mortality doubles from 24 to 50% when the diagnosis is delayed, and reaches 100% when the diagnosis is missed. Thus, the accurate diagnosis of talaromycosis is of utmost importance. Herein, in the first part of this article, we provide an extensive review of the diagnostic tools used thus far by physicians in the management of cases of talaromycosis. The challenges encountered and the perspectives which may aid in the discovery of more accurate and reliable diagnostic approaches are also discussed. In the second part of this review, we discuss the drugs used to prevent and treat T. marneffei infection. Alternative therapeutic options and potential drug resistance reported in the contemporary literature are also discussed. We aim to guide researchers towards the discovery of novel approaches to prevent, diagnose, and treat talaromycosis, and therefore improve the prognosis for those afflicted by this important disease.

An Overlooked and Underrated Endemic Mycosis-Talaromycosis and the Pathogenic Fungus Talaromyces marneffei

Talaromycosis is an invasive mycosis endemic in tropical and subtropical Asia and is caused by the pathogenic fungus Talaromyces marneffei. Approximately 17,300 cases of T. marneffei infection are diagnosed annually, and the reported mortality rate is extremely high (~1/3). Despite the devastating impact of talaromycosis on immunocompromised individuals, particularly HIV-positive persons, and the increase in reported occurrences in HIV-uninfected persons, diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for talaromycosis have received far too little attention worldwide. In 2021, scientists living in countries where talaromycosis is endemic raised a global demand for it to be recognized as a neglected tropical disease. Therefore, T. marneffei and the infectious disease induced by this fungus must be treated with concern. T. marneffei is a thermally dimorphic saprophytic fungus with a complicated mycological growth process that may produce various cell types in its life cycle, including conidia, hyphae, and yeast, all of which are associated with its pathogenicity. However, understanding of the pathogenic mechanism of T. marneffei has been limited until recently. To achieve a holistic view of T. marneffei and talaromycosis, the current knowledge about talaromycosis and research breakthroughs regarding T. marneffei growth biology are discussed in this review, along with the interaction of the fungus with environmental stimuli and the host immune response to fungal infection. Importantly, the future research directions required for understanding this serious infection and its causative pathogenic fungus are also emphasized to identify solutions that will alleviate the suffering of susceptible individuals worldwide.

Clinical features of patients with talaromycosis marneffei and microbiological characteristics of the causative strains

BACKGROUND

Talaromyces marneffei (T. marneffei) is a temperature-dependent dimorphic fungus that is mainly prevalent in Southeast Asia and South China and often causes disseminated life-threatening infections. This study aimed to investigate the clinical features and improve the early diagnosis of talaromycosis marneffei in nonendemic areas.

METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed the medical records of six cases of T. marneffei infection. We describe the clinical manifestations, laboratory tests, and imaging manifestations of the six patients.

RESULTS

Talaromyces marneffei infection was confirmed by sputum culture, blood culture, tissue biopsy, and metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS). In this study, there were five disseminated-type patients and two HIV patients. One patient died within 24 h, and the others demonstrated considerable improvement after definitive diagnosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Due to the lack of significant clinical presentations of talaromycosis marneffei, many cases may be easily misdiagnosed in nonendemic areas. It is particularly important to analyze the imaging manifestations and laboratory findings of infected patients. With the rapid development of molecular biology, mNGS may be a rapid and effective diagnostic method.

Pulmonary Talaromycosis: A Window into the Immunopathogenesis of an Endemic Mycosis

Talaromycosis is an invasive mycosis caused by the thermally dimorphic saprophytic fungus Talaromyces marneffei (Tm) endemic in Asia. Like other endemic mycoses, talaromycosis occurs predominantly in immunocompromised and, to a lesser extent, immunocompetent hosts. The lungs are the primary portal of entry, and pulmonary manifestations provide a window into the immunopathogenesis of talaromycosis. Failure of alveolar macrophages to destroy Tm results in reticuloendothelial system dissemination and multi-organ disease. Primary or secondary immune defects that reduce CD4+ T cells, INF-γ, IL-12, and IL-17 functions, such as HIV infection, anti-interferon-γ autoantibodies, STAT-1 and STAT-3 mutations, and CD40 ligand deficiency, highlight the central roles of Th1 and Th17 effector cells in the control of Tm infection. Both upper and lower respiratory infections can manifest as localised or disseminated disease. Upper respiratory disease appears unique to talaromycosis, presenting with oropharyngeal lesions and obstructive tracheobronchial masses. Lower respiratory disease is protean, including alveolar consolidation, solitary or multiple nodules, mediastinal lymphadenopathy, cavitary disease, and pleural effusion. Structural lung disease such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is an emerging risk factor in immunocompetent hosts. Mortality, up to 55%, is driven by delayed or missed diagnosis. Rapid, non-culture-based diagnostics including antigen and PCR assays are shown to be superior to blood culture for diagnosis, but still require rigorous clinical validation and commercialisation. Our current understanding of acute pulmonary infections is limited by the lack of an antibody test. Such a tool is expected to unveil a larger disease burden and wider clinical spectrum of talaromycosis.

Analysis of clinical characteristics and prognosis of talaromycosis (with or without human immunodeficiency virus) from a non-endemic area: a retrospective study

Purpose

Talaromyces marneffei (TM) is a pathogenic fungus endemic in Southeast Asia and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive populations, but studies related to non-endemic areas and HIV-negative populations are still limited. Therefore, this study aims to provide more additional evidence for clinical work of talaromycosis.

Methods

To collect clinical information of patients with talaromycosis admitted to hospitals in Zhejiang Province, China from January 1, 2010 to May 31, 2020, retrospectively analyzed clinical characteristics and prognosis, COX multivariate regression analysis was used for survival analysis.

Results

A total of 92 patients were enrolled, including 76 males, 73 HIV-positive patients, with an average age of 40.1 ± 13.0. Compared to HIV-positive group, the negative group had higher admission age (47.7 ± 14.6 vs 38.1 ± 11.9, p = 0.003) and lower proportion of male (89.0% vs 57.9%, p = 0.004), there was no significant difference in imaging of lungs. There were significantly more HIV-positive patients in those with pleural effusion (100% vs 69.4%, p = 0.001). COX multivariate regression analysis suggested pleural effusion (HR = 3.220; 95% CI 1.117–9.287; p = 0.030) and HIV infection (HR = 0.057; 95% CI 0.009–0.370; p = 0.003) which were independent predictors of prognosis in patients with talaromycosis.

Conclusions

In non-endemic areas, clinical symptoms, signs, and laboratory tests of patients with talaromycosis are similar to those in endemic areas. Patients with pleural effusion have lower survival rate, HIV-infected people are less likely to relapse, and there is no significant correlation between extent of lung involvement and survival of infected patients.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s15010-021-01679-6.

Clinical characteristics and risk factors for poor prognosis among HIV patients with Talaromyces marneffei bloodstream infection

Background

Talaromyces marneffei (TM) bloodstream infection is common in Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) patients with extreme immunodeficiency in Southeast Asia and South China, however, clinical case study on TM bloodstream infection is scarce. We retrospectively analyzed the clinical characteristics of TM bloodstream infection in hospitalized AIDS patients and determined the outcomes of hospitalization after diagnosis in our hospital over the past 5 years.

Methods

From January 2015 to July 2020, 87 cases of TM detected by blood culture in patients admitted to our center were collected. The admission complaints, blood cells, biochemistry, CD4 and CD8 cell counts and 1,3-β-D-glucan (BDG), procalcitonin (PCT), CRP level on the day of blood culture test, and outcomes during hospitalization were analyzed. Logistic regression analysis was performed for the risk factors for poor prognosis (60 cases). Spearman correlation analysis was used to analyze the correlation between peripheral blood cells, albumin and the time required for TM turnaround in blood culture. The difference was statistically significant when the P value was < 0.05.

Results

A total of 87 patients were collected, with a median age of 34 years, a median hemoglobin of 94 g/L and CD4 count of 7/μl. The rate of TM bloodstream infection among all in-hospital patients increased from 0.99% in 2015 to 2.09% in 2020(half year). Patients with TM bloodstream infection with CD8 count < 200/μl had a 12.6-fold higher risk of poor prognosis than those with CD8 count > 200/μl (p = 0.04), and those with BDG < 100 pg/mL had a 34.9-fold higher risk of poor prognosis than those with BDG > 100 pg/mL (p = 0.01).

Conclusions

TM bloodstream infection is becoming more common in advanced AIDS patients in endemic areas. For those patients with extremely low CD4 and CD8 cell counts below 200/μl is with an increased risk of poor prognosis.

Diagnosis of Pulmonary Infections Due to Endemic Fungi

Endemic mycoses including Histoplasma, Blastomyces, Coccidioides, Paracoccidioides, and Talaromyces are dimorphic fungi that can cause a variety of clinical manifestations, including respiratory infections. Their pulmonary presentations are variable, and diagnosis is often delayed as they can mimic other infectious and non-infectious causes of pulmonary disease. Delay in diagnosis can lead to unnecessary antibiotic use, repeat hospitalizations, and increased morbidity and mortality. The diagnosis of endemic fungal pulmonary infections often relies on multiple diagnostic tests including culture, tissue histopathology, antigen assays, and antibody assays. Due to the increased use of immunosuppressive agents and the widening geographic ranges where these infections are being found, the prevalence of endemic fungal infections is increasing. Physicians need to be aware of the clinical manifestations of pulmonary infections due to endemic fungal in order to ensure that the proper diagnostic work up is obtained promptly. A high index of suspicion is particularly important in patients with suspected pulmonary infections who have failed to improve despite antibiotics in the appropriate setting. We present a review diagnostic testing for pulmonary infections due to endemic mycoses.

Re-drawing the Maps for Endemic Mycoses

Endemic mycoses such as histoplasmosis, coccidioidomycosis, blastomycosis, paracoccidioidomycosis, and talaromycosis are well-known causes of focal and systemic disease within specific geographic areas of known endemicity. However, over the past few decades, there have been increasingly frequent reports of infections due to endemic fungi in areas previously thought to be “non-endemic.” There are numerous potential reasons for this shift such as increased use of immune suppressive medications, improved diagnostic tests, increased disease recognition, and global factors such as migration, increased travel, and climate change. Regardless of the causes, it has become evident that our previous understanding of endemic regions for these fungal diseases needs to evolve. The epidemiology of the newly described Emergomyces is incomplete; our understanding of it continues to evolve. This review will focus on the evidence underlying the established areas of endemicity for these mycoses as well as new data and reports from medical literature that support the re-thinking these geographic boundaries. Updating the endemic fungi maps would inform clinical practice and global surveillance of these diseases.

Use of (1→3)-β-d-glucan for diagnosis and management of invasive mycoses in HIV-infected patients

People living with HIV (PLHIV) are highly vulnerable to invasive fungal infections (IFIs) due to their immune dysfunction. Diagnosis and treatment of IFIs remain challenging due to the requirement of deep tissue sampling to visualise and culture fungi before initiating treatment. Such techniques are less practical in resource‐limited settings due to their cost and requirement of relatively invasive procedures. Hence, identification of surrogate markers for the early diagnosis and therapeutic monitoring of IFIs is required. Recent studies have shown that (1→3)‐β‐d‐glucan (BDG), a major fungal cell wall antigen, represents a promising soluble marker for the presumptive diagnosis and therapeutic monitoring of IFIs in HIV‐infected patients. Herein, we review findings on the merits of BDG assays in the diagnosis of IFIs and monitoring of antifungal therapies for PLHIV. Conversely to other types of immunocompromised patients, HIV infection is associated with gut damage and subsequent bacterial and fungal translocation leading to elevated BDG plasma levels.

Case Report: Disseminated Talaromyces (Penicillium) marneffei and Mycobacterium tuberculosis Coinfection in a Japanese Patient with Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

Talaromyces marneffei is a dimorphic fungus endemic mainly in southeast and south Asia. It causes severe mycosis, usually in immunocompromised individuals, such as those with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Concomitant infection with T. marneffei and other opportunistic pathogens is plausible because the majority of T. marneffei infections occur in patients with advanced HIV infection. Nonetheless, coinfection in the same site has rarely been reported, and poses a considerable diagnostic and therapeutic challenge. We report the case of an HIV-infected Japanese patient who had lived in Thailand for 6 years. The patient developed T. marneffei and Mycobacterium tuberculosis coinfection, and both pathogens were isolated from the same sites: a blood specimen and a lymph node aspirate. Clinicians should be aware of concomitant infection with T. marneffei and other pathogens in patients with advanced HIV disease who are living in or who have visited endemic areas.