An Overview of Privileged Scaffold: Quinolines and Isoquinolines in Medicinal Chemistry as Anticancer Agents

Synthesis and cytotoxic activity of some (+)-salsolidine derivatives

On the basis of typical for secondary amino group reactions a number of derivatives of alkaloid (+)-salsolidine was synthesised. Cytotoxic properties of obtained compounds towards the HEK293, A549, MCF-7 and SH-SY5Y cell lines have been evaluated. As a result of the screening, the hit compound - 2-(chloroacetyl)-6,7-dimethoxy-1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline (11) was identified, that inhibited the metabolic activity of A-549, MCF-7 and SH-SY5Y tumour cell lines with the IC50 values of 3.83 ± 0.78 µM, 5.84 ± 1.62 µM and 2.89 ± 0,92 µM correspondingly. Based on the effect of 11 on the cell cycle progression and the molecular docking data, it was preliminary assumed that the cytotoxic activity of the 11 can be realised through its interaction with the active site of the cyclin-dependent kinase CDK9 (PDB code 3BLR).

Plant‐Derived Phytochemicals and Their Nanoformulations for Inducing Programed Cell Death in Cancer

Phytochemicals are a diverse class of compounds found in various plant‐based foods and beverages that have displayed the capacity to exert powerful anticancer effects through the induction of programed cell death (PCD) in malignancies. PCD is a sophisticated process that maintains in upholding tissue homeostasis and eliminating injured or neoplastic cells. Phytochemicals have shown the potential to induce PCD in malignant cells through various mechanisms, including modulation of cell signaling pathways, regulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and interaction with critical targets in cells such as DNA. Moreover, recent studies have suggested that nanomaterials loaded with phytochemicals may enhance cell death in tumors, which can also stimulate antitumor immunity. In this review, a comprehensive overview of the current understanding of the anticancer effects of phytochemicals and their potential as a promising approach to cancer therapy, is provided. The impacts of phytochemicals such as resveratrol, curcumin, apigenin, quercetin, and some approved plant‐derived drugs, such as taxanes on the regulation of some types of PCD, including apoptosis, pyroptosis, anoikis, autophagic cell death, ferroptosis, and necroptosis, are discussed. The underlying mechanisms and the potential of nanomaterials loaded with phytochemicals to enhance PCD in tumors are also explained.

Transition metal-catalyzed transformations of 2-formylarylboronic acids

2-Formylarylboronic acids are easily available precursors in organic chemistry. Different types of transition metal catalysts, such as Pd(0), Pd(II), Rh(I), Ir(I), Ni(II), Cu(I), Cu(II), and Co(II), can efficiently catalyze coupling reactions of 2-formylarylboronic acids with other organic reactants. In this review, we describe the synthesis of a diverse range of carbocyclic and heterocyclic compounds, as well as acyclic compounds, via transition metal-catalyzed reactions of 2-formylarylboronic acids over the past two decades.

Synthesis of N-Alkyl-3-[2-oxoquinolin-1(2H)-yl]propanoic Acid Derivatives and Related Compounds: Cytotoxicity and EGFR Inhibition of Some Propanamide Derivatives

A series of 20 new structure-modified quinolin-2-one derivatives were prepared for biological evaluation. This was successfully achieved based on chemoselective reactions of heterocyclic amides with acrylic acid derivatives, which gave 3-[2-oxoquinolin-1-(2H)-yl] propanoic acid derivatives (N-substitution via a unique behavior). The ester was reacted with hydrazine to afford the corresponding hydrazide. Both the corresponding ester and hydrazide were used as building blocks to modify the quinolone structure and give N-hydroxyl propanamides, oxadiazoles, and thiosemicarbazides. The corresponding carboxylic acid and hydrazide were used to prepare several amides: N-alkyl-3-[2-oxoquinolin-1(2H)-yl]propanamides via azide and dicyclohexyl carbodiimide coupling methods. Among derivatives, compound 9e exhibited potent cytotoxicity against MCF-7 cells with an IC50 value of 1.32 μM compared to doxorubicin with an IC50 value of 1.21 μM. Additionally, it caused potent EGFR inhibition by 97% with an IC50 value of 16.89 nM compared to Erlotinib with an IC50 value of 29.8 nM. Finally, the binding mode of compound interactions toward EGFR was highlighted using a molecular docking study; compound 9e exhibited good binding affinity with a binding energy of -17.89 kcal/mol, and it formed H-bond interactions with Met 769 as the key amino acid of interaction. Accordingly, compound 9e may be developed as an EGFR-oriented chemotherapeutic antibreast cancer agent.

Alkoxy-functionalised dihydropyrimido[4,5-b]quinolinones enabling anti-proliferative and anti-invasive agents

In this communication, we explored the synthesis of novel alkoxy-functionalised dihydropyrimido[4,5-b]quinolinones using a microwave-assisted multicomponent reaction. All the synthesized molecules were screened for anti-proliferative and anti-invasive activity against glioblastoma cells. 5c shows the most potent anti-proliferative activity with a half maximal effective concentration of less than 3 μM against primary patient-derived glioblastoma cells. 5c effectively inhibited invasion and tumor growth of 3D primary glioma cultures in a basement membrane matrix. This suggests that the novel compounds could inhibit both the proliferation and invasive spread of glioma and they were selected for further study.

An ICT-based highly fluorescent isoquinoline scaffold for selective Hg(II) detection in real-water samples: Development of a smart, low-cost RGB-Arduino electronic platform

Selective detection and quantification of Hg2+ ions is crucial to minimize health and environmental risks. Fluorescent organic small-molecule probes have been expeditiously utilized owing to their unique set of improved properties. However, isoquinoline core has not been extensively explored as a fluorescence platform partly due to synthetic challenges. Herein, a serendipitously discovered synthetic route to access a small yet highly functionalized novel isoquinoline-based probe, IQ is reported. The synthesis is achieved through the in-situ generation of ammonia, followed by intermolecular [5C + 1 N] aza-annulation reaction with a ketendithioacetal-based precursor, P-IQ. IQ displayed excellent recognition ability towards Hg2+ ions in H2O:ACN (99:1, v/v) via ICT-off fluorescent quenching behavior. Comparative FT-IR, 1H/13C NMR, mass spectral studies, and DFT analyses were carried out to validate the suggested mechanisms. Reversible studies confirm the secondary recognition effect of in-situ generated (IQ + Hg2+) complex on cysteine. The binding constant and LOD were estimated to be 3.7 × 104 M-1 and 0.86 µM, respectively. Further, IQ was utilized to evaluate the mercury ion content in real water samples demonstrating its effectiveness in water quality monitoring. The practical utility of IQ was further explored by developing TLC strips, Whatman filter-paper strips, and a low-cost, portable Arduino-based platform. Arduino microcontroller is interfaced with an RGB sensor to detect color changes and quantify mercury concentration w.r.t. RGB values.

Recent developments of hydroxamic acid hybrids as potential anti-breast cancer agents

Histone deacetylase inhibitors not only possess favorable effects on modulating tumor microenvironment and host immune cells but also can reactivate the genes silenced due to deacetylation and chromatin condensation. Hydroxamic acid hybrids as promising histone deacetylase inhibitors have the potential to address drug resistance and reduce severe side effects associated with a single drug molecule due to their capacity to simultaneously modulate multiple targets in cancer cells. Accordingly, rational design of hydroxamic acid hybrids may provide valuable therapeutic interventions for the treatment of breast cancer. This review aimed to provide insights into the in vitro and in vivo anti-breast cancer therapeutic potential of hydroxamic acid hybrids, together with their mechanisms of action and structure-activity relationships, covering articles published from 2020 to the present.

Regioselective Synthesis of Cycloalkane-fused Pyrazolo[4,3-e]pyridines through Tandem Reaction of 5-aminopyrazoles, Cyclic Ketones and Electron-rich Olefins

BACKGROUND

Pyrazolopyridines are interesting fused heterocyclic pharmacophores that combine pyrazole and pyridine; two privileged nuclei extensively studied and with a wide range of applications. They can be obtained by a broad variety of synthetic methods among which multicomponent reactions have gained importance, especially from 5-aminopyrazoles and dielectrophilic reagents. However, the search for new approaches more in tune with sustainable chemistry and the use of unconventional heating in three-component synthesis are open and highly relevant study fields.

METHODS

A novel, practical and efficient three-component synthesis of cycloalkane-fused pyrazolo[ 4,3-e]pyridines was developed through a tandem reaction of 5-aminopyrazoles, cyclic ketones and electron-rich olefins, using microwave induction in perfluorinated solvent and iodine as catalyst.

RESULTS

The microwave-induced three-component approach applied in this work promoted the construction of 10 new pyrazolopyridines with high speed and excellent control of regioselectivity, favoring the linear product with good yields; where the versatility of electron-rich olefins in iodine-catalyzed cascade heterocyclizations, granted the additional benefit of easy isolation and the possibility to reuse the fluorous phase.

CONCLUSION

Although pyrazolopyridines have been synthetically explored because of their structural and biological properties, most of the reported synthetic methods use common or even toxic organic solvents and conventional heating or multi-step processes. In contrast, this study applied a multicomponent methodology in a single step by microwave induction and with the versatility provided in this case by the use of perfluorinated solvent, which allowed easy isolation of the final product and recovery of the fluorous phase.

Copper(II) Complexes with 1-(Isoquinolin-3-yl)heteroalkyl-2-ones: Synthesis, Structure and Evaluation of Anticancer, Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Potential

Four copper(II) complexes, C1-4, derived from 1-(isoquinolin-3-yl)heteroalkyl-2-one ligands L1-4 were synthesized and characterized using an elemental analysis, IR spectroscopic data as well as single crystal X-ray diffraction data for complex C1. The stability of complexes C1-4 under conditions mimicking the physiological environment was estimated using UV-Vis spectrophotometry. The antiproliferative activity of both ligands L1-4 and copper(II) compounds C1-4 were evaluated using an MTT assay on four human cancer cell lines, A375 (melanoma), HepG2 (hepatoma), LS-180 (colon cancer) and T98G (glioblastoma), and a non-cancerous cell line, CCD-1059Sk (human normal skin fibroblasts). Complexes C1-4 showed greater potency against HepG2, LS180 and T98G cancer cell lines than etoposide (IC50 = 5.04-14.89 μg/mL vs. IC50 = 43.21->100 μg/mL), while free ligands L1-4 remained inactive in all cell lines. The prominent copper(II) compound C2 appeared to be more selective towards cancer cells compared with normal cells than compounds C1, C3 and C4. The treatment of HepG2 and T98G cells with complex C2 resulted in sub-G1 and G2/M cell cycle arrest, respectively, which was accompanied by DNA degradation. Moreover, the non-cytotoxic doses of C2 synergistically enhanced the cytotoxic effects of chemotherapeutic drugs, including etoposide, 5-fluorouracil and temozolomide, in HepG2 and T98G cells. The antimicrobial activities of ligands L2-4 and their copper(II) complexes C2-4 were evaluated using different types of Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria and yeast species. No correlation was found between the results of the antiproliferative and antimicrobial experiments. The antioxidant activities of all compounds were determined using the DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging methods. Antiradical tests revealed that among the investigated compounds, copper(II) complex C4 possessed the strongest antioxidant properties. Finally, the ADME technique was used to determine the physicochemical and drug-likeness properties of the obtained complexes.

Structure-based drug discovery of novel fused-pyrazolone carboxamide derivatives as potent and selective AXL inhibitors

As a novel and promising antitumor target, AXL plays an important role in tumor growth, metastasis, immunosuppression and drug resistance of various malignancies, which has attracted extensive research interest in recent years. In this study, by employing the structure-based drug design and bioisosterism strategies, we designed and synthesized in total 54 novel AXL inhibitors featuring a fused-pyrazolone carboxamide scaffold, of which up to 20 compounds exhibited excellent AXL kinase and BaF3/TEL-AXL cell viability inhibitions. Notably, compound 59 showed a desirable AXL kinase inhibitory activity (IC50: 3.5 nmol/L) as well as good kinase selectivity, and it effectively blocked the cellular AXL signaling. In turn, compound 59 could potently inhibit BaF3/TEL-AXL cell viability (IC50: 1.5 nmol/L) and significantly suppress GAS6/AXL-mediated cancer cell invasion, migration and wound healing at the nanomolar level. More importantly, compound 59 oral administration showed good pharmacokinetic profile and in vivo antitumor efficiency, in which we observed significant AXL phosphorylation suppression, and its antitumor efficacy at 20 mg/kg (qd) was comparable to that of BGB324 at 50 mg/kg (bid), the most advanced AXL inhibitor. Taken together, this work provided a valuable lead compound as a potential AXL inhibitor for the further antitumor drug development.

Rh(II)-Catalyzed Denitrogenative Reaction of N-Sulfonyl-1,2,3-triazoles with Quinolones and Isoquinolones

Herein, we developed an efficient approach to access biologically relevant 2-aminoquinolines and 1-aminoisoquinolines from readily available N-sulfonyl-1,2,3-triazoles and 2-quinolones or 1-isoquinolones. This transformation involves the selective O-H insertion of these derivatives onto the in situ generated Rh-azavinyl carbenes (Rh-AVC) followed by rearrangement. The reaction proceeds smoothly under operationally simple conditions and the protocol was found to be scalable.

Exploring Pyrrolo-Fused Heterocycles as Promising Anticancer Agents: An Integrated Synthetic, Biological, and Computational Approach

Five new series of pyrrolo-fused heterocycles were designed through a scaffold hybridization strategy as analogs of the well-known microtubule inhibitor phenstatin. Compounds were synthesized using the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of cycloimmonium N-ylides to ethyl propiolate as a key step. Selected compounds were then evaluated for anticancer activity and ability to inhibit tubulin polymerization in vitro. Notably, pyrrolo[1,2-a]quinoline 10a was active on most tested cell lines, performing better than control phenstatin in several cases, most notably on renal cancer cell line A498 (GI₅₀ 27 nM), while inhibiting tubulin polymerization in vitro. In addition, this compound was predicted to have a promising ADMET profile. The molecular details of the interaction between compound 10a and tubulin were investigated through in silico docking experiments, followed by molecular dynamics simulations and configurational entropy calculations. Of note, we found that some of the initially predicted interactions from docking experiments were not stable during molecular dynamics simulations, but that configurational entropy loss was similar in all three cases. Our results suggest that for compound 10a, docking experiments alone are not sufficient for the adequate description of interaction details in terms of target binding, which makes subsequent scaffold optimization more difficult and ultimately hinders drug design. Taken together, these results could help shape novel potent antiproliferative compounds with pyrrolo-fused heterocyclic cores, especially from an in silico methodological perspective.

Secosteroid-quinoline hybrids as new anticancer agents

An elegant approach to unknown secosteroid-quinoline hybrids is disclosed. A series of 13,17-secoestra-1,3,5(10)-trien-17-oic acid [N'-(iso)quinolylmethylene]hydrazides was prepared and these novel type of secosteroids was screened for antiproliferative activity against estrogen-responsive human breast cancer cell line MCF-7. Most of the synthesized compounds showed a cytotoxic effect superior to that of reference drug cisplatin; the lead compound exhibits the highest activity with the IC₅₀ value of about 0.8 μM and is 7 times more active than cisplatin. A high selectivity index was observed for the hit 13,17-secoestra-1,3,5(10)-trien-17-oic acid [N'-quinolylmethylene]hydrazides 2a and 2c. Compounds 2a and 2c evaluated in luciferase reporter assays exhibited high antiestrogenic potency which was superior to that of tamoxifen. These hit compounds were characterized by high activity against MCF-7 cells that retained towards multidrug-resistant NCI/ADR-RES cells.

Catalyst-Free α-Allylation of Dihydroisoquinolines with Morita-Baylis-Hillman Carbonates and Its Applications in the Construction of Benzo[a]quinolizidines

In this work, a mild and efficient catalyst-free α-allylation of 3,4-dihydroisoquinoline imines with Morita-Baylis-Hillman (MBH) carbonates was reported. The scopes of 3,4-dihydroisoquinolines and MBH carbonates as well as gram-scale synthesis were investigated, and densely functionalized adducts were obtained in moderate to good yields. The synthetic utility of these versatile synthons was further demonstrated by the facile synthesis of diverse benzo[a]quinolizidine skeletons.

Advances in anticancer alkaloid-derived metallo-chemotherapeutic agents in the last decade: Mechanism of action and future prospects

Metal-based complexes have occupied a pioneering niche in the treatment of many chronic diseases, including various types of cancers. Despite the phenomenal success of cisplatin for the treatment of many solid malignancies, a limited number of metallo-drugs are in clinical use against cancer chemotherapy till date. While many other prominent platinum and non‑platinum- based metallo-drugs (e.g. NAMI-A, KP1019, carboplatin, oxaliplatin, titanocene dichloride, casiopeinas® etc) have entered clinical trials, many have failed at later stages of R&D due to deleterious toxic effects, intrinsic resistance and poor pharmacokinetic response and low therapeutic efficacy. Nonetheless, research in the area of medicinal inorganic chemistry has been increasing exponentially over the years, employing novel target based drug design strategies aimed at improving pharmacological outcomes and at the same time mitigating the side-effects of these drug entities. Over the last few decades, natural products became one of the key structural motifs in the anticancer drug development. Many eminent researchers in the area of medicinal chemistry are devoted to develop new 3d-transition metal-based anticancer drugs/repurpose the existing bioactive compounds derived from myriad pharmacophores such as coumarins, flavonoids, chromones, alkaloids etc. Metal complexes of natural alkaloids and their analogs such as luotonin A, jatrorrhizine, berberine, oxoaporphine, 8-oxychinoline etc. have gained prominence in the anticancer drug development process as the naturally occurring alkaloids can be anti-proliferative, induce apoptosis and exhibit inhibition of angiogenesis with better healing effect. While some of them are inhibitors of ERK signal-regulated kinases, others show activity based on cyclooxygenases-2 (COX-2) and telomerase inhibition. However, the targets of these alkaloid complexes are still unclear, though it is well-established that they demonstrate anticancer potency by interfering with multiple pathways of tumorigenesis and tumor progression both in vitro and in vivo. Over the last decade, many significant advances have been made towards the development of natural alkaloid-based metallo-drug therapeutics for intervention in cancer chemotherapy that have been summarized below and reviewed in this article.

Reactivity of Covalent Fragments and Their Role in Fragment Based Drug Discovery

Fragment based drug discovery has long been used for the identification of new ligands and interest in targeted covalent inhibitors has continued to grow in recent years, with high profile drugs such as osimertinib and sotorasib gaining FDA approval. It is therefore unsurprising that covalent fragment-based approaches have become popular and have recently led to the identification of novel targets and binding sites, as well as ligands for targets previously thought to be 'undruggable'. Understanding the properties of such covalent fragments is important, and characterizing and/or predicting reactivity can be highly useful. This review aims to discuss the requirements for an electrophilic fragment library and the importance of differing warhead reactivity. Successful case studies from the world of drug discovery are then be examined.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of new 2‑substituted‑4‑amino-quinolines and -quinazoline as potential antifungal agents

Aiming to discover novel antifungal agents, a series of 2‑substituted‑4‑amino-quinolines and -quinazoline were prepared and characterized using IR, ¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR, and HRMS spectroscopic techniques. Their antifungal activities against four invasive fungi were evaluated, and the results revealed that some of the target compounds exhibited moderate to excellent inhibitory potencies. The most promising compounds III₁₁, III₁₄, III_15, and III₂₃ exhibited potent and broad-spectrum antifungal activities with MIC values of 4-32 μg/mL. The mechanism studies showed that compound III₁₁ (N,2-di-p-tolylquinolin-4-amine hydrochloride) did not play antifungal potency by disrupting fungal membrane, which was quite different from many traditional membrane-active antifungal drugs. Meanwhile, III₁₁ also demonstrated a low likelihood of inducing resistance, and excellent stability in mouse plasma. In addition, some interesting structure-activity relationships (SARs) were also discussed. These results suggest that some 4‑aminoquinolines may serve as new and promising candidates for further antifungal drug discovery.

Biology of quinoline and quinazoline alkaloids

Quinoline and quinazoline alkaloids, two important classes of N-based heterocyclic compounds, have attracted scientific and popular interest worldwide since the 19th century. More than 600 compounds have been isolated from nature to date. To build on our two prior reviews, we reexamined the promising molecules described in previous reports and provided updated literature on novel quinoline and quinazoline alkaloids isolated over the past 5 years. This chapter reviews and discusses 205 molecules with a broad range of bioactivities, including antiparasitic and insecticidal, antibacterial and antifungal, cardioprotective, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and other effects. This survey should provide new clues or possibilities for the discovery of new and better drugs from the original naturally occurring quinoline and quinazoline alkaloids.

Iodine-promoted formal [5+1] annulation of 2-vinylanilines and thiuram: a facile approach for the synthesis of 2-aminoquinolines

Quinolines especially 2-aminoquinolines are highly important heterocycles in medicinal chemistry. 2-Aminoquinolines can be synthesized via stepwise construction of quinoline ring followed by additional amination, however the protocol is cumbersome. Herein, we describe a [5+1] cyclization of 2-vinylanilines with tetraalkylthiuram disulfide in the presence of iodine and copper(II) triflate. This reaction directly employs readily available and low-cost thiuram as both C1 synthon and nitrogen source, providing a facile approach for one-step synthesis of a variety of 2-aminoquinolines in good to excellent yields.

Fused pyrrolo-pyridines and pyrrolo-(iso)quinoline as anticancer agents

This work emphasizes the synthesis strategies and antiproliferative related properties of fused pyrrolo-pyridine (including indolizine and azaindoles) and pyrrolo-(iso)quinoline derivatives recently reported in literature.

Rh(III)-Catalyzed Cascade Annulation to Produce N-acetyl Chain of Spiropyrroloisoquinoline Derivatives

A new rhodium(III)-catalyzed three-component multistep cascade spirocyclization approach was developed to synthesize nolvel N-acetyl chain of spiropyrroloisoquinoline derivatives using oxadiazoles as the directing group. This one-pot reaction also isolates aryloxadiazole...

Access to 3-Sulfonamidoquinolines by Gold-Catalyzed Cyclization of 1-(2'-Azidoaryl)propargylsulfonamides through 1,2-N Migration

We describe a gold-catalyzed cyclization of 1-(2'-azidoaryl)propargylsulfonamides for the synthesis of 3-sulfonamidoquinolines, featuring a rare and highly selective 1,2-N migration. The key α-imino gold carbene intermediate is generated through an intramolecular nucleophilic attack of the azide group to the Au-activated triple bonds in a 6-endo-dig manner.

Current status of carbazole hybrids as anticancer agents

The drug resistance and low specificity of current available chemotherapeutics to cancer cells are the main reasons responsible for the failure of cancer chemotherapy and remain dramatic challenges for cancer therapy, creating an urgent need to develop novel anticancer agents. Carbazole nucleus, widely distributed in nature, is a predominant feature of a vast array of biologically active compounds. Carbazole derivatives exhibited potential antiproliferative activity against different cancer cell lines by diverse mechanisms, inclusive of arrest cell cycle and induce apoptosis, and several anticancer agents are carbazole-based compounds. Thus, carbazole derivatives represent a fertile source for discovery of novel anticancer therapeutic agents. Over the past several years, a variety of carbazole hybrids have been developed as potential anticancer agents. The present review focuses on the recent progress, from 2016 until now, in knowledge on anticancer properties, structure-activity relationships and mechanisms of action of carbazole hybrids to provide a basis for development of relevant therapeutic agents.

Regioselective Functionalization of Quinolines through C-H Activation: A Comprehensive Review

Quinoline is a versatile heterocycle that is part of numerous natural products and countless drugs. During the last decades, this scaffold also became widely used as ligand in organometallic catalysis. Therefore, access to functionalized quinolines is of great importance and continuous efforts have been made to develop efficient and regioselective synthetic methods. In this regard, C-H functionalization through transition metal catalysis, which is nowadays the Graal of organic green chemistry, represents the most attractive strategy. We aim herein at providing a comprehensive review of methods that allow site-selective metal-catalyzed C-H functionalization of quinolines, or their quinoline N-oxides counterparts, with a specific focus on their scope and limitations, as well as mechanistic aspects if that accounts for the selectivity.