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Bhatnagar KR, Dixit SG, Pandey L, Prakash S, Shiromani S, Singh K. Digital eye strain among medical students associated with shifting to e-learning during COVID-19 pandemic: An online survey. Indian J Ophthalmol 2024; 72:98-104. [PMID: 38131578 PMCID: PMC10841805 DOI: 10.4103/ijo.ijo_492_23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Revised: 07/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aimed to determine the prevalence, risk factors, symptoms, and awareness of computer vision syndrome (CVS) among medical students during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. METHODS A cross-sectional observational study was conducted among 283 undergraduate medical students at a tertiary healthcare center. An electronic survey was conducted to collect the data. Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 23). The Chi-square test (Fisher's exact test when required) was used to study the significance of associations. A P value <0.05 was considered statistically significant. RESULTS A high prevalence of CVS was observed in which 92% reported at least one symptom while using a digital device, the most frequent being eye strain (49%). Among extraocular complaints, joint pain in the wrist and fingers was most frequent. Significant association (P < 0.05) of CVS was found with increased duration of digital device usage, refractive error, use of glasses or contact lens, preexisting dry eye disease, and use of topical eye drops. 37% of the participants were aware of the 20-20-20 rule, while only 11% followed it. CONCLUSION CVS is a common health concern among medical students. Hence, to increase the productivity of work, significant risk factors need to be addressed and awareness must be raised.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Latika Pandey
- Department of Ophthalmology, AIIMS, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
| | - Sujeet Prakash
- Department of Ophthalmology, AIIMS, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
| | | | - Kuldeep Singh
- Department of Paediatrics, AIIMS, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
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Iqbal M, Said O. Comments on: Regarding "A study on correlation of computer vision syndrome and dry eye disease and knowledge regarding its associated factors among health professionals". Indian J Ophthalmol 2024; 72:140-141. [PMID: 38131591 PMCID: PMC10841785 DOI: 10.4103/ijo.ijo_1809_23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Iqbal
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Sohag University, Sohag, Egypt
| | - Omar Said
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Fayoum University, Fayoum, Egypt
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Ccami-Bernal F, Soriano-Moreno DR, Romero-Robles MA, Barriga-Chambi F, Tuco KG, Castro-Diaz SD, Nuñez-Lupaca JN, Pacheco-Mendoza J, Galvez-Olortegui T, Benites-Zapata VA. Prevalence of computer vision syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JOURNAL OF OPTOMETRY 2024; 17:100482. [PMID: 37866176 PMCID: PMC10785422 DOI: 10.1016/j.optom.2023.100482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2022] [Revised: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE This review aimed to estimate the prevalence of computer vision syndrome (CVS) in the general population and subgroups. METHODS A search was conducted in the following the databases: PubMed, SCOPUS, EMBASE, and Web of Science until February 13, 2023. We included studies that assessed the prevalence of CVS in any population. The Joanna Briggs Institute's critical appraisal tool was used to evaluate the methodological quality. A meta-analysis of the prevalence of CVS was done using a random-effects model, assessing the sources of heterogeneity using subgroup and meta-regression analyses. RESULTS A total of 103 cross-sectional studies with 66 577 participants were included. The prevalence of CVS was 69.0% (95% CI: 62.3 to 75.3; I2: 99.7%), ranging from 12.1 to 97.3% across studies. Point prevalence was higher in women than in men (71.4 vs. 61.8%), university students (76.1%), Africa (71.2%), Asia (69.9%), contact lens wearers (73.1% vs. 63.8%) in studies conducted before the COVID-19 pandemic (72.8%), and in those that did not use the CVS-Q questionnaire (75.4%). In meta-regression, using the CVS-Q scale was associated with a lower prevalence of CVS. CONCLUSION Seven out of ten people suffer from CVS. Preventive strategies and interventions are needed to decrease the prevalence of this condition which can affect productivity and quality of life. Future studies should standardize a definition of CVS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabricio Ccami-Bernal
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional de San Agustín de Arequipa, Santa Catalina 117, Arequipa 04000, Peru
| | - David R Soriano-Moreno
- Unidad de Investigación Clínica y Epidemiológica, Universidad Peruana Unión, Lima, Carretera Central Km 19.5 Ñaña, Chosica, 15464 Peru
| | | | - Fernanda Barriga-Chambi
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional de San Agustín de Arequipa, Santa Catalina 117, Arequipa 04000, Peru
| | - Kimberly G Tuco
- Unidad de Investigación Clínica y Epidemiológica, Universidad Peruana Unión, Lima, Carretera Central Km 19.5 Ñaña, Chosica, 15464 Peru
| | - Sharong D Castro-Diaz
- Unidad de Investigación Clínica y Epidemiológica, Universidad Peruana Unión, Lima, Carretera Central Km 19.5 Ñaña, Chosica, 15464 Peru
| | - Janeth N Nuñez-Lupaca
- Escuela Profesional de Medicina Humana, Universidad Nacional Jorge Basadre Grohmann, Tacna, Miraflores S/N, 23000 Peru
| | | | - Tomas Galvez-Olortegui
- Unidad de Oftalmología Basada en Evidencias (Oftalmoevidencia), Scientia Clinical and Epidemiological Research Institute, Trujillo, Mz. G Lt. 22 Urb. Vista Hermosa, 13001 Peru; Departamento de Oftalmología, Hospital Nacional Guillermo Almenara Yrigoyen, Jirón García Naranjo 840, La Victoria 13, Lima 15033, Peru
| | - Vicente A Benites-Zapata
- Unidad de investigación para la Generación y Síntesis de Evidencias en Salud (UGIES), Universidad San Ignacio de Loyola, Av. La Fontana 550, La Molina, Lima 15024, Peru.
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Iqbal M, Elmassry A, Said O. Letter to the Editor Regarding "Blue Light Exposure: Ocular Hazards and Prevention-A Narrative Review". Ophthalmol Ther 2023; 12:2813-2816. [PMID: 37428403 PMCID: PMC10441919 DOI: 10.1007/s40123-023-00759-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Iqbal
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Sohag University, Sohag, 82425 Egypt
| | - Ahmed Elmassry
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Omar Said
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Fayoum University, Fayoum, Egypt
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Cougnard-Gregoire A, Delcourt C. Response to the Letter to the Editor Regarding "Blue Light Exposure: Ocular Hazards and Prevention-A Narrative Review" by Iqbal et al. Ophthalmol Ther 2023; 12:2817-2819. [PMID: 37428402 PMCID: PMC10441948 DOI: 10.1007/s40123-023-00760-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Cécile Delcourt
- Univ. Bordeaux, INSERM, BPH, U1219, F-33000, Bordeaux, France
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Wolffsohn JS. Reply to Letter to the Editor re: TFOS lifestyle: Impact of the digital environment on the ocular surface. Ocul Surf 2023; 29:422. [PMID: 37336259 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtos.2023.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- James S Wolffsohn
- College of Health & Life Sciences, School of Optometry, Aston University, Birmingham, UK; Department of Ophthalmology, New Zealand National Eye Centre, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
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Iqbal M, Elmassry A, Elgharieb M, Elzembely H, Said O. Letter to the editor regarding "TFOS Lifestyle: Impact of the digital environment on the ocular surface". Ocul Surf 2023; 29:416-421. [PMID: 37315713 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtos.2023.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Iqbal
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Sohag University, Sohag, Egypt.
| | - Ahmed Elmassry
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Mervat Elgharieb
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
| | - Hosam Elzembely
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Minia University, Minia, Egypt
| | - Omar Said
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Fayoum University, Fayoum, Egypt
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Prevalence of computer vision syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci Rep 2023; 13:1801. [PMID: 36720986 PMCID: PMC9888747 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-28750-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Although computer vision syndromes are becoming a major public health concern, less emphasis is given to them, particularly in developing countries. There are primary studies on different continents; however, there are inconsistent findings in prevalence among the primary studies. Therefore, this systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to estimate the pooled prevalence of computer vision syndrome. In this study, the review was developed using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Online electronic databases, including PubMed/Medline, CINAHL, and Google Scholar, were used to retrieve published and unpublished studies. The study was conducted from December 1 to April 9/2022. Study selection, quality assessment, and data extraction were performed independently by two authors. Quality assessment of the studies was performed using the Joanna Briggs Institute Meta-Analysis of Statistics Assessment and Review Instrument tool. Heterogeneity was assessed using the statistical test I2. STATA 14 software was used for statistical analysis. A total of 7,35 studies were retrieved, and 45 studies were included in the final meta-analysis. The pooled prevalence of computer vision syndrome was 66% (95% CI: 59, 74). Subgroup analysis based on country was highest in Pakistan (97%, 95% CI: 96, 98) and lowest in Japan (12%, 95% CI: 9, 15). Subgroup analysis based on country showed that studies in Saudi Arabia (I2 = 99.41%, p value < 0.001), Ethiopia (I2 = 72.6%, p value < 0.001), and India (I2 = 98.04%, p value < 0.001) had significant heterogeneity. In the sensitivity analysis, no single study unduly influenced the overall effect estimate. Nearly two in three participants had computer vision syndrome. Thus, preventive practice strategic activities for computer vision syndrome are important interventions.
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Iqbal M, Gad A. Analysis of the Outcomes of the Screen-Time Reduction in Computer Vision Syndrome: A Cohort Comparative Study [Response to Letter]. Clin Ophthalmol 2023; 17:361-363. [PMID: 36721666 PMCID: PMC9884440 DOI: 10.2147/opth.s405522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Iqbal
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Sohag University, Sohag, Egypt,Correspondence: Mohammed Iqbal, Email
| | - Ahmed Gad
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Sohag University, Sohag, Egypt
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Abdelaziz K, Shaheen M. Analysis of the Outcomes of the Screen-Time Reduction in Computer Vision Syndrome: A Cohort Comparative Study [Letter]. Clin Ophthalmol 2023; 17:329-330. [PMID: 36718350 PMCID: PMC9883995 DOI: 10.2147/opth.s405004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Khaled Abdelaziz
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Beni Suef University, Beni Suef, Egypt,Correspondence: Khaled Abdelaziz, Email
| | - Mahrous Shaheen
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Fayoum University, Fayoum, Egypt
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Iqbal M, Soliman A, Ibrahim O, Gad A. Analysis of the Outcomes of the Screen-Time Reduction in Computer Vision Syndrome: A Cohort Comparative Study. Clin Ophthalmol 2023; 17:123-134. [PMID: 36644605 PMCID: PMC9833323 DOI: 10.2147/opth.s399044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose To analyze the outcomes of screen-time reduction on the foveal responses that associates computer vision syndrome (CVS) using multifocal electroretinogram (mfERG) examination. Methods This prospective multicenter cohort comparative study included 49 eyes of 49 medical students divided into two groups. Group A (control group) included 25 eyes with no CVS diagnosis while group B (CVS group) included 24 eyes with CVS diagnosis. All students responded to the valid and reliable CVS-Form 3 (CVS-F3) questionnaire and underwent complete ophthalmic and mfERG examinations twice at the time recruitment in the study and four weeks after strict reduction of the daily screen-hours to ≤1 screen-hour daily to document associated foveal responses. Results We documented statistically significant reduction in foveal responses in CVS versus control groups in mean mfERG Rings 1, 2, and 5 with Quadrants 1, 2, and 4 (P=<0.0001, 0.0001, 0.0003, 0.001, 0.002, and 0.006, respectively). Following the screen-time reduction, the second mfERG examination revealed significant post-reduction improvements in foveal responses in CVS group particularly in mean mfERG Rings 1, 2, 3, and 5 with Quadrants 1 and 4 (P=<0.0001, <0.0001, 0.0005, 0.02, <0.0001, and 0.04, respectively). Conclusion This study documented the screen-induced foveal dysfunction that associates CVS using mfERG examination, which revealed remarkable significant improvements in foveal responses in the 4 weeks following strict screen-time reduction. These improvements were also associated with corresponding improvements in the visual performances. We suggest that the potential screen-induced foveal dysfunction outcomes might be reversible with strict screen-time reduction. We also recommend that educational institutional policies should limit online education-hours and redesign the mandated computer system use program to guard against visual sequelae of CVS. Clinical Trials Registration ClinicalTrials.gov (ID: NCT04405648).
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Iqbal
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Sohag University, Sohag, Egypt,Correspondence: Mohammed Iqbal, Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Sohag University, Sohag, 82425, Egypt, Tel +2 01068559840, Fax +2 093 2159080, Email
| | - Ashraf Soliman
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Ola Ibrahim
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Ahmed Gad
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Sohag University, Sohag, Egypt
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Lema AK, Anbesu EW. Computer vision syndrome and its determinants: A systematic review and meta-analysis. SAGE Open Med 2022; 10:20503121221142402. [PMCID: PMC9743027 DOI: 10.1177/20503121221142402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: Computer vision syndromes are becoming a major public health concern. Inconsistent findings existed on computer vision syndrome. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to estimate the pooled prevalence of computer vision syndrome and identify its determinants. Methods: In this study, the review was developed using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Online electronic databases, including PubMed/Medline, CINAHL, and Google Scholar, were used to retrieve studies from 1 December to 9 April 2022. Quality assessment of the studies was performed using the JBI-MAStARI. RevMan and STATA 14 software were used for statistical analysis. Result: A total of 725 studies were retrieved, and 49 studies were included. The pooled prevalence of computer vision syndrome was 66% (95%, Confidence interval: 59, 74). Being female (Odd Ratio = 1.74, 95% Confidence interval [1.2, 2.53]), improper body posturing while using electronic devices (Odd Ratio = 2.65, 95% Confidence interval [1.7, 4.12]), use of electronic devices out of work (Odd Ratio = 1.66, 95% CI [1.15, 2.39]), no habit of taking breaks (Odd Ratio = 2.24, 95% Confidence interval [1.13, 4.44]), long duration of visual display terminal use (Odd Ratio = 2.02, 95% Confidence interval [1.08, 3.77]), short distance screen (Odd Ratio = 4.24, 95% Confidence interval [2.33, 7.71]), and general ergonomic practice (Odd Ratio = 3.87, 95% Confidence interval [2.18, 6.86]) were associated with increased odds of computer vision syndrome. However, good knowledge (Odd Ratio = 4.04, 95% Confidence interval [2.75, 5.94]) of computer vision syndrome was associated with decreased odds of computer vision syndrome. Conclusion: Nearly two in three participants had computer vision syndrome. Being female, improper body posturing, use of electronics devices out of work, no habit of taking a break, long-hour duration of visual display terminal use, short-distance screen, and general ergonomic practice were associated with increased odds of computer vision syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asamene Kelelom Lema
- Department of Computer Science, College of Engineering and Technology, Samara University, Samara, Ethiopia
| | - Etsay Woldu Anbesu
- Department of Public Health, College of Medical and Health Sciences, Samara University, Samara, Ethiopia,Etsay Woldu Anbesu, Department of Public Health, College of Medical and Health Sciences, Samara University, 132, Semera, Afar region, Ethiopia.
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Iqbal M, Ibrahim Elzembely H, Said OM. Letter to the Editor: "Self-Reported Student Awareness and Prevalence of Computer Vision Syndrome During COVID-19 Pandemic at Al-Baha University" [Letter]. CLINICAL OPTOMETRY 2022; 14:193-194. [PMID: 36267876 PMCID: PMC9578492 DOI: 10.2147/opto.s391171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Iqbal
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Sohag University, Sohag, Egypt
| | | | - Omar M Said
- Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Fayoum University, Fayoum, Egypt
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Alatawi SK, Allinjawi K, Alzahrani K, Hussien NK, Bashir M, Ramadan EN. Self-Reported Student Awareness and Prevalence of Computer Vision Syndrome During COVID-19 Pandemic at Al-Baha University. CLINICAL OPTOMETRY 2022; 14:159-172. [PMID: 36157166 PMCID: PMC9507172 DOI: 10.2147/opto.s374837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The rapid increase increased, in using of video display terminals during the COVID-19 pandemic predisposes users to a variety of health problems restricted to visual problems and including various musculoskeletal problems, collectively known as computer vision syndrome (CVS) or computer vision syndrome. AIM This study aims to ascertain university students' awareness of computer vision syndrome at Al-Baha University, including the nature, sources, accuracy, and completeness of information, as well as the attitudes towards CVS, and mitigative practices. METHODS This study used a descriptive cross-sectional design and a convenient sample of 310 (80.0% male) students drawn from Al Baha University campuses. Data were collected using self-administered questionnaires. RESULTS The mean age of the participants was 23.51 years (SD=5.42). The results show that 78.7%, 66.1%, and 11.6% received CVS information from social media, mass media, and family, respectfully. Despite 70% of respondents being aware of CVS manifestations, between 42% to 67% of those sampled had accurate and complete information about the meaning, causes, prevention, and management of the syndrome. More than a third of the participants had either a good (62.9%) or average (29%) total knowledge of CVS. Less than 15% had incorrect information. On average, 62.5% of respondents engaged in preventive or mitigative behaviours/activities as opposed to 37.5% who did not, but only 44% believed CVS was a serious health threat. 65.2% of the studied students had a satisfactory total practice score. The regression analysis showed that the coefficients of marital status and faculty were a statistically significant association with the total knowledge score. CONCLUSION CVS awareness is acceptably high, but there is a low preventive/mitigative behaviors as well as a low realization of CVS' long-term health problems. This is why increasing CVS awareness and implementing interventions such as the 20-20-20 rule could be effective at Al Baha University.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saleha K Alatawi
- Department of Optometry, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Al-Baha University, Al-Baha, Saudi Arabia
| | - Kareem Allinjawi
- Department of Optometry, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Jeddah University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Khaled Alzahrani
- Ophthalmology Department, King Fahad Armed Forces Hospital, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Naglaa K Hussien
- Department of Nursing, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Al-Baha University, Al-Baha, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mahadi Bashir
- Consultant of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medicine, Al-Baha University, Al-Baha, Saudi Arabia
| | - Eman N Ramadan
- Department of Public Health, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Al-Baha University, Al-Baha, Saudi Arabia
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