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Jiang Y, MacNeil LT. Simple model systems reveal conserved mechanisms of Alzheimer's disease and related tauopathies. Mol Neurodegener 2023; 18:82. [PMID: 37950311 PMCID: PMC10638731 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-023-00664-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2023] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The lack of effective therapies that slow the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and related tauopathies highlights the need for a more comprehensive understanding of the fundamental cellular mechanisms underlying these diseases. Model organisms, including yeast, worms, and flies, provide simple systems with which to investigate the mechanisms of disease. The evolutionary conservation of cellular pathways regulating proteostasis and stress response in these organisms facilitates the study of genetic factors that contribute to, or protect against, neurodegeneration. Here, we review genetic modifiers of neurodegeneration and related cellular pathways identified in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, and the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, focusing on models of AD and related tauopathies. We further address the potential of simple model systems to better understand the fundamental mechanisms that lead to AD and other neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuwei Jiang
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Lesley T MacNeil
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada.
- Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada.
- Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University, 1280 Main St W, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4K1, Canada.
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Wang H, Han M, Li J, Hu Y, Chen Y, Li J. Versatile lipoprotein-inspired nanocomposites rescue Alzheimer's cognitive dysfunction by promoting Aβ degradation and lessening oxidative stress. NANOSCALE 2023; 15:15717-15729. [PMID: 37728399 DOI: 10.1039/d3nr03346e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/21/2023]
Abstract
The accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) into senile plaques and the resulting continuous oxidative stress are major pathogenic mechanisms in Alzheimer's disease (AD). In this study, we designed a lipoprotein-inspired nanoparticle to facilitate Aβ clearance and alleviate oxidative stress for the treatment of AD. Lipoprotein-like nanocomposites (RLA-rHDL@ANG) were fabricated by assembling reconstituted high density lipoprotein (rHDL) with an apoE-derived peptide (RLA) with Aβ binding and clearance capabilities, and were subsequently camouflaged using reactive oxygen species (ROS)-sensitive DSPE-TK-mPEG2000 and DSPE-TK-PEG3400-ANG with brain penetration as well as ROS scavenging ability. Immunoelectron microscopy, fluorescence colocalization, and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay, together with a thioflavin-T (ThT) fluorescence quantitative test, showed that RLA-rHDL@ANG possessed the ability of high binding affinity to both Aβ monomers and oligomers, and disintegration of pre-formed Aβ aggregates. ROS level monitoring and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed that RLA-rHDL@ANG possessed ROS sensitivity and consumption properties. Transcellular assay and in vivo imaging showed that RLA-rHDL@ANG effectively facilitated blood-brain barrier (BBB) penetration and intracerebral accumulation. It promoted the efficient degradation of Aβ by microglia and neurons through lysosomal transport and elimination approaches. Four-week administration of RLA-rHDL@ANG effectively reduced Aβ deposition, decreased the ROS level and improved cognitive functions in AD mice. These findings indicate that multifunctional RLA-rHDL@ANG may serve as a promising and feasible candidate for managing the progression of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China.
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of New Drug Research and Clinical Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
| | - Mengmeng Han
- School of Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China.
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of New Drug Research and Clinical Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
| | - Jianfei Li
- School of Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China.
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of New Drug Research and Clinical Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
| | - Yunfeng Hu
- School of Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China.
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of New Drug Research and Clinical Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
| | - Yang Chen
- School of Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China.
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of New Drug Research and Clinical Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
| | - Jin Li
- School of Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China.
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of New Drug Research and Clinical Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou 221004, China
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Predicting Key Genes and Therapeutic Molecular Modelling to Explain the Association between Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis) and Alzheimer’s Disease (AD). Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24065432. [PMID: 36982508 PMCID: PMC10049565 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24065432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/03/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The association between Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis) and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) remains unclear. The major aim of this study was to elucidate the role of genes and molecular targets in P. gingivalis-associated AD. Two Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) datasets, GSE5281 for AD (n = 84 Alzheimer’s, n = 74 control) and GSE9723 (n = 4 P. gingivalis, n = 4 control), were downloaded from the GEO database. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were obtained, and genes common to both diseases were drawn. Additionally, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) and Gene Ontology (GO) analysis was performed from the top 100 genes (50 upregulated and 50 downregulated genes). We then proceeded with CMap analysis to screen for possible small drug molecules targeting these genes. Subsequently, we performed molecular dynamics simulations. A total of 10 common genes (CALD1, HES1, ID3, PLK2, PPP2R2D, RASGRF1, SUN1, VPS33B, WTH3DI/RAB6A, and ZFP36L1) were identified with a p-value < 0.05. The PPI network of the top 100 genes showed UCHL1, SST, CHGB, CALY, and INA to be common in the MCC, DMNC, and MNC domains. Out of the 10 common genes identified, only 1 was mapped in CMap. We found three candidate small drug molecules to be a fit for PLK2, namely PubChem ID: 24971422, 11364421, and 49792852. We then performed molecular docking of PLK2 with PubChem ID: 24971422, 11364421, and 49792852. The best target, 11364421, was used to conduct the molecular dynamics simulations. The results of this study unravel novel genes to P. gingivalis-associated AD that warrant further validation.
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Taheri P, Yaghmaei P, Hajebrahimi Z, Parivar K. Neuroprotective effects of nerolidol against Alzheimer's disease in Wistar rats. Drug Dev Res 2022; 83:1858-1866. [DOI: 10.1002/ddr.22002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peyman Taheri
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch Islamic Azad University Tehran Iran
| | - Parichehreh Yaghmaei
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch Islamic Azad University Tehran Iran
| | - Zahra Hajebrahimi
- Khayyam Research Institute Ministry of Science Research and Technology Tehran Iran
| | - Kazem Parivar
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch Islamic Azad University Tehran Iran
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Paramanick D, Singh VD, Singh VK. Neuroprotective effect of phytoconstituents via nanotechnology for treatment of Alzheimer diseases. J Control Release 2022; 351:638-655. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.09.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Revised: 09/25/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Role of Chemokines in the Development and Progression of Alzheimer's Disease. J Mol Neurosci 2022; 72:1929-1951. [PMID: 35821178 PMCID: PMC9392685 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-022-02047-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 07/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurogenerative disorder manifested by gradual memory loss and cognitive decline due to profound damage of cholinergic neurons. The neuropathological hallmarks of AD are intracellular deposits of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) and extracellular aggregates of amyloid β (Aβ). Mounting evidence indicates that intensified neuroinflammatory processes play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of AD. Chemokines serve as signaling molecules in immune cells but also in nerve cells. Under normal conditions, neuroinflammation plays a neuroprotective role against various harmful factors. However, overexpression of chemokines initiates disruption of the integrity of the blood–brain barrier, facilitating immune cells infiltration into the brain. Then activated adjacent glial cells–astrocytes and microglia, release massive amounts of chemokines. Prolonged inflammation loses its protective role and drives an increase in Aβ production and aggregation, impairment of its clearance, or enhancement of tau hyperphosphorylation, contributing to neuronal loss and exacerbation of AD. Moreover, chemokines can be further released in response to growing deposits of toxic forms of Aβ. On the other hand, chemokines seem to exert multidimensional effects on brain functioning, including regulation of neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity in regions responsible for memory and cognitive abilities. Therefore, underexpression or complete genetic ablation of some chemokines can worsen the course of AD. This review covers the current state of knowledge on the role of particular chemokines and their receptors in the development and progression of AD. Special emphasis is given to their impact on forming Aβ and NFTs in humans and in transgenic murine models of AD.
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Gene Therapy Approach with an Emphasis on Growth Factors: Theoretical and Clinical Outcomes in Neurodegenerative Diseases. Mol Neurobiol 2021; 59:191-233. [PMID: 34655056 PMCID: PMC8518903 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-021-02555-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The etiology of many neurological diseases affecting the central nervous system (CNS) is unknown and still needs more effective and specific therapeutic approaches. Gene therapy has a promising future in treating neurodegenerative disorders by correcting the genetic defects or by therapeutic protein delivery and is now an attraction for neurologists to treat brain disorders, like Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, spinal muscular atrophy, spinocerebellar ataxia, epilepsy, Huntington’s disease, stroke, and spinal cord injury. Gene therapy allows the transgene induction, with a unique expression in cells’ substrate. This article mainly focuses on the delivering modes of genetic materials in the CNS, which includes viral and non-viral vectors and their application in gene therapy. Despite the many clinical trials conducted so far, data have shown disappointing outcomes. The efforts done to improve outcomes, efficacy, and safety in the identification of targets in various neurological disorders are also discussed here. Adapting gene therapy as a new therapeutic approach for treating neurological disorders seems to be promising, with early detection and delivery of therapy before the neuron is lost, helping a lot the development of new therapeutic options to translate to the clinic.
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Li S, Luo Z, Zhang R, Xu H, Zhou T, Liu L, Qu J. Distinguishing Amyloid β-Protein in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease by Label-Free Vibrational Imaging. BIOSENSORS-BASEL 2021; 11:bios11100365. [PMID: 34677321 PMCID: PMC8533730 DOI: 10.3390/bios11100365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Revised: 09/26/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Due to the increase in the average age of humans, Alzheimer's disease (AD) has become one of the disorders with the highest incidence worldwide. Abnormal amyloid β protein (Aβ) accumulation is believed to be the most common cause of AD. Therefore, distinguishing the lesion areas can provide clues for AD diagnosis. Here, we present an optical spectroscopy and imaging approach based on coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS). Label-free vibrational imaging of Aβ in a mouse model of AD was performed to distinguish the lesion areas by studying the spectra of regions with and without Aβ plaques. Raman spectra in Aβ and non-Aβ regions exhibited a specific difference in the intensity ratio of the wave peaks detected at 2850 and 2930 cm-1. In the non-Aβ region, the ratio of the peak intensity at 2850 cm-1 to that at 2930 cm-1 was approximately 1, whereas that in the Aβ region was 0.8. This label-free vibrational imaging may provide a new method for the clinical diagnosis and basic research of AD.
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Parvin P, Parichehreh Y, Mehdi N, Zahra H. Effects of artemisinin and TSP-1-human endometrial-derived stem cells on a streptozocin-induced model of Alzheimer’s disease and diabetes in Wistar rats. Acta Neurobiol Exp (Wars) 2021. [DOI: 10.21307/ane-2021-013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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10
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Ye LH, Zhang R, Cao J. Screening of β-secretase inhibitors from Dendrobii Caulis by covalently enzyme-immobilized magnetic beads coupled with ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2020; 195:113845. [PMID: 33371968 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2020.113845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, to effectively discover potential β-secretase inhibitors from Dendrobii Caulis, β-secretase was immobilized on magnetic beads via direct covalent connection and coupled with ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography. Mechanochemical-assisted extraction was used to extract active ingredients from Dendrobii Caulis. The main reaction conditions, including screening enzyme inhibitors, were evaluated, and the most important enzyme kinetic parameters were also investigated across the UV-vis spectrophotometer. Five compounds (rutin, scoparone, naringenin, dendrophenol, and erianin) with high binding affinity to magnetic beads were removed from the extract. The results indicated that β-secretase was successfully immobilized and screened out five potential inhibitor compounds by ligand fishing. The lowest IC50 values were noted for rutin (5.437 μM) and erianin (2.039 μM). This is the first report on immobilized β-secretase on magnetic beads for the identification of potential active compounds against Alzheimer's disease from complex biological mixtures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Hong Ye
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Hangzhou Red Cross Hospital, Hangzhou, 310003, China
| | - Rui Zhang
- College of Material Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, PR China
| | - Jun Cao
- College of Material Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, 311121, PR China.
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11
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Gao Y, Yuan X, Zhu Z, Wang D, Liu Q, Gu W. Research and prospect of peptides for use in obesity treatment (Review). Exp Ther Med 2020; 20:234. [PMID: 33149788 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2020.9364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2019] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Obesity and its related diseases, such as type 2 diabetes, hypertension and cardiovascular disease, are steadily increasing worldwide. Over the past few decades, numerous studies have focused on the differentiation and function of brown and beige fat, providing evidence for their therapeutic potential in treating obesity. However, no specific novel drug has been developed to treat obesity in this way. Peptides are a class of chemically active substances, which are linked together by amino acids using peptide bonds. They have specific physiological activities, including browning of white fat. As signal molecules regulated by the neuroendocrine system, the role of polypeptides, such as neuropeptide Y, brain-gut peptide and glucagon-like peptide in obesity and its related complications has been revealed. Notably, with the rapid development of peptidomics, peptide drugs have been widely used in the prevention and treatment of metabolic diseases, due to their short half-life, small apparent distribution volume, low toxicity and low side effects. The present review summarizes the progress and the new trend of peptide research, which may provide novel targets for the prevention and treatment of obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Gao
- Department of Endocrinology, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210008, P.R. China
| | - Xuewen Yuan
- Department of Endocrinology, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210008, P.R. China
| | - Ziyang Zhu
- Department of Endocrinology, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210008, P.R. China
| | - Dandan Wang
- Department of Endocrinology, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210008, P.R. China
| | - Qianqi Liu
- Department of Endocrinology, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210008, P.R. China
| | - Wei Gu
- Department of Endocrinology, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210008, P.R. China
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Kai-Xin-San, a Chinese Herbal Decoction, Accelerates the Degradation of β-Amyloid by Enhancing the Expression of Neprilysin in Rats. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2020; 2020:3862342. [PMID: 32148540 PMCID: PMC7054802 DOI: 10.1155/2020/3862342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the mechanisms of Kai-Xin-San (KXS, a famous Chinese herbal decoction used to treat amnesia) on the degradation of Aβ and further elucidate the mechanism of KXS on Aβ-induced memory dysfunction. After pretreatment with KXS (1.08 g/kg/day) for two weeks, Aβ42 (2 μL, 200 μM) was injected into rat hippocampus to induce cognitive dysfunction. Morris water maze (MWM) test was developed to evaluate cognitive performance in rats. Hippocampal neurons were observed by histological staining using Hematoxylin-Eosin (HE) methods. Levels of exogenous Aβ42, which was injected into the hippocampus, were continually measured through a special Enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA) kit to observe the catabolic process of Aβ in the brain. Similarly, Aβ degradation in PC12 cells was also investigated using the ELISA kit. The expressions of Aβ degeneration enzymes, including neprilysin (NEP), angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), and endothelin-converting enzyme (ECE), were detected by western blotting to elucidate Aβ reduction mechanism. Our results showed that KXS prevented Aβ42-induced cognitive impairment and attenuated hippocampus neuronal damage caused by Aβ42. Moreover, KXS could accelerate Aβ42 degradation in Aβ42 injected rats. Furthermore, NEP, an Aβ degradation enzyme, was increased in the hippocampus while ECE and ACE, other two Aβ-degrading enzymes, were not changed. KXS accelerated Aβ degradation in PC12 cells. Our findings revealed that KXS facilitated the degradation of Aβ42 by increasing the expression of NEP in rat hippocampus. By reducing the Aβ burdens, KXS protected hippocampal neurons, leading to the improvement of cognitive function in rats.
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Majid N, Siddiqi MK, Khan AN, Shabnam S, Malik S, Alam A, Uversky VN, Khan RH. Biophysical Elucidation of Amyloid Fibrillation Inhibition and Prevention of Secondary Nucleation by Cholic Acid: An Unexplored Function of Cholic Acid. ACS Chem Neurosci 2019; 10:4704-4715. [PMID: 31661243 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.9b00482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein misfolding and its deviant self-assembly to converge into amyloid fibrils is associated with the perturbation of cellular functions and thus with debilitating neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, etc. A great deal of research has already been carried out to discover a potential amyloid inhibitor that can slow down, prevent, or remodel toxic amyloids. In the present study with the help of a combination of biophysical, imaging, and computational techniques, we investigated the mechanism of interaction of cholic acid (CA), a primary bile acid, with human insulin and Aβ-42 and found CA to be effective in inhibiting amyloid formation. From ThT data, we inferred that CA encumbers amyloid fibrillation up to 90% chiefly by targeting elongation of fibrils with an insignificant effect on lag time, while in the case of Aβ-42, CA stabilizes the peptide in its native state preventing its fibrillation. Strikingly upon adding initially at the secondary nucleation stage, CA also detained the progression/growth of insulin fibrils. CA is unable to prevent the conformational changes completely during fibrillation but tends to resist and maintain an α helical structure up to a significant extent at a primary nucleation stage while reducing the β sheet rich content at the secondary nucleation stage. Moreover, CA treated samples exhibited reduced cytotoxicity and different morphology. Furthermore, the results obtained after molecular docking indicated that CA is interacting with insulin via hydrogen bonds. For future research, this study can be considered as preliminary research for the development of CA, a metabolite of our body, as a potential therapeutic agent against Alzheimer's disease without even stimulating the immunological responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nabeela Majid
- Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002, India
| | | | - Asra Nasir Khan
- Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002, India
| | - Shabnam Shabnam
- Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002, India
| | - Sadia Malik
- Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002, India
| | - Aftab Alam
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Basic Science, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi 110025, India
| | - Vladimir N. Uversky
- Protein Research Group, Institute for Biological Instrumentation of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 142290, Russia
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Molecular Medicine, USF Health Byrd Alzheimer’s Research Institute, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33612, United States
| | - Rizwan Hasan Khan
- Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002, India
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Aminyavari S, Zahmatkesh M, Khodagholi F, Sanati M. Anxiolytic impact of Apelin-13 in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease: Involvement of glucocorticoid receptor and FKBP5. Peptides 2019; 118:170102. [PMID: 31199948 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2019.170102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2019] [Revised: 05/18/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Apelin-13 is known to be one of the predominant neuropeptides with marked protective role in circuits involved in mood disturbances. The most putative hypothesis in pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is Amyloid beta (Aβ) aggregation which interrupt proper function of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and are associated with anxiety. Here, we assessed the potential anxiolytic effect of Apelin-13 in a rodent cognitive impairment model induced by intrahippocampal Aβ 25-35 administration. We evaluated the memory impairment and anxiogenic behavior using shuttle box and Elevated plus maze apparatuses. We also measured the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and FK506 binding protein 51 (FKBP5) expression as important markers showing the proper feedback mechanism within the HPA axis. Our findings showed that Aβ 25-35 administration induced memory impairment and anxiety behaviors. Apelin-13 exerted the anxiolytic effects and provided protection against Aβ 25-35 -induced passive avoidance memory impairment. Moreover, Apelin-13 caused an increase in GR and a decrease in FKBP5 expression levels in Aβ 25-35 treated animals. Taken together, these findings showed the anxiolytic effect of Apelin-13. This effect at least in part, may be mediated through the regulation of GR and FKBP5 expression levels which have a pivotal role in the appropriate negative feedback mechanism within the HPA axis. These data suggest that Apelin-13 might be considered as a potential neuropeptide defense that reduces anxiety along with neuroprotective effect against the Aβ 25-35 -induced injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samaneh Aminyavari
- Department of Neuroscience and Addiction Studies, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Maryam Zahmatkesh
- Department of Neuroscience and Addiction Studies, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Electrophysiology Research Center, Neuroscience Institute, Tehran, Iran, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Cognitive Sciences and Behavioral Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Fariba Khodagholi
- Neuroscience Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehdi Sanati
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Birjand University of Medical Sciences, Birjand, Iran
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Gutiérrez M, Vallejos GA, Cortés MP, Bustos C. Bennett acceptance ratio method to calculate the binding free energy of BACE1 inhibitors: Theoretical model and design of new ligands of the enzyme. Chem Biol Drug Des 2019; 93:1117-1128. [PMID: 30693676 DOI: 10.1111/cbdd.13456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Revised: 11/02/2018] [Accepted: 11/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, the design, development, and evaluation of several inhibitors of the BACE1 enzyme, as part of Alzheimer's treatment, have gathered the scientific community's interest. Here, a linear regression model was built using binding free energy calculations through the Bennett acceptance ratio method for 20 known inhibitors of the BACE1 enzyme, with a Pearson coefficient of R = 0.88 and R2 = 0.78. The validation of this model was verified employing eight additional random inhibitors, which also gave a linear correlation with R = 0.97 and R2 = 0.93. Furthermore, this linear regression model was also used for proposing the structure of four potential BACE1 inhibitors, and the most active of them gave a theoretical Kd = 10 nM. However, these molecules have not been synthesized yet. Our team used a total time of more than 800 ns for the Molecular Dynamics to carry out this study, and all the software used were freely available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarita Gutiérrez
- Laboratorio de Síntesis Orgánica y Actividades Biológicas (LSO-Act-Bio), Instituto de Química de los Recursos Naturales, Universidad de Talca, Talca, Chile
| | - Gabriel A Vallejos
- Facultad de Ciencias, Instituto de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Magdalena P Cortés
- Escuela de Química y Farmacia, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Carlos Bustos
- Facultad de Ciencias, Instituto de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
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Effect of Varying Concentrations of Docosahexaenoic Acid on Amyloid Beta (1⁻42) Aggregation: An Atomic Force Microscopy Study. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23123089. [PMID: 30486385 PMCID: PMC6321163 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23123089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2018] [Revised: 11/08/2018] [Accepted: 11/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Healthcare has advanced significantly, bringing with it longer life expectancies and a growing population of elders who suffer from dementia, specifically Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The amyloid beta (Aβ) peptide has been implicated in the cause of AD, where the peptides undergo a conformational change and form neurotoxic amyloid oligomers which cause neuronal cell death. While AD has no cure, preventative measures are being designed to either slow down or stop the progression of this neurodegenerative disease. One of these measures involves dietary supplements with polyunsaturated fatty acids such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). This omega-3 fatty acid is a key component of brain development and has been suggested to reduce the progression of cognitive decline. However, different studies have yielded different results as to whether DHA has positive, negative, or no effects on Aβ fibril formation. We believe that these discrepancies can be explained with varying concentrations of DHA. Here, we test the inhibitory effect of different concentrations of DHA on amyloid fibril formation using atomic force microscopy. Our results show that DHA has a strong inhibitory effect on Aβ1–42 fibril formation at lower concentrations (50% reduction in fibril length) than higher concentrations above its critical micelle concentration (70% increase in fibril length and three times the length of those at lower concentrations). We provide evidence that various concentrations of DHA can play a role in the inhibitory effects of amyloid fibril formation in vitro and help explain the discrepancies observed in previous studies.
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Sehgal SA, Hammad MA, Tahir RA, Akram HN, Ahmad F. Current Therapeutic Molecules and Targets in Neurodegenerative Diseases Based on in silico Drug Design. Curr Neuropharmacol 2018; 16:649-663. [PMID: 29542412 PMCID: PMC6080102 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x16666180315142137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2017] [Revised: 01/01/2018] [Accepted: 03/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract: Background As the number of elderly persons increases, neurodegenerative diseases are becoming ubiquitous. There is currently a great need for knowledge concerning management of old-age neurodegenerative diseases; the most important of which are: Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, and Huntington’s disease. Objective To summarize the potential of computationally predicted molecules and targets against neurodegenerative diseases. Method Review of literature published since 1997 against neurodegenerative diseases, utilizing as keywords: in silico, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis ALS, and Huntington’s disease was conducted. Results and Conclusion Due to the costs associated with experimentation and current ethical law, performing experiments directly on living organisms has become much more difficult. In this scenario, in silico techniques have been successful and have become powerful tools in the search to cure disease. Researchers use the Computer Aided Drug Design pipeline which: 1) generates 3-dimensional structures of target proteins through homology modeling 2) achieves stabilization through molecular dynamics simulation, and 3) exploits molecular docking through large compound libraries. Next generation sequencing is continually producing enormous amounts of raw sequence data while neuroimaging is producing a multitude of raw image data. To solve such pressing problems, these new tools and algorithms are required. This review elaborates precise in silico tools and techniques for drug targets, active molecules, and molecular docking studies, together with future prospects and challenges concerning possible breakthroughs in Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, and Huntington’s disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheikh Arslan Sehgal
- State Key Laboratory of Biomembrane and Membrane Biotechnology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences; Beijing, China.,Department of Biosciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Sahiwal, Pakistan.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Mirza A Hammad
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics; Chinese Academy of Sciences; Beijing, China
| | - Rana Adnan Tahir
- Department of Biosciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Sahiwal, Pakistan.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Separation and Analysis in Biomedical and Pharmaceuticals, Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Beijing Institute of Technology, China
| | - Hafiza Nisha Akram
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Quaid-e-Azam University Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Faheem Ahmad
- Department of Biosciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
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18
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Ohshima Y, Iwata K, Ibi M, Matsumoto M, Katsuyama M, Yabe-Nishimura C. Nicotine and methyl vinyl ketone, major components of cigarette smoke extracts, increase protective amyloid-β peptides in cells harboring amyloid-β precursor protein. J Toxicol Sci 2018; 43:257-266. [PMID: 29618714 DOI: 10.2131/jts.43.257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The increased ratio of longer amyloid-β (Aβ1-42)/shorter amyloid-β (Aβ1-40) peptides, generated from amyloid precursor protein (APP), is known to promote the development of Alzheimer's disease (AD). To investigate the role of smoking in Aβ production, we determined the production of Aβ species in the presence of nicotine or methyl vinyl ketone (MVK), major components of cigarette smoke extracts, in Flp-In™ T-REx™-293 (T-REx293) cells harboring a single copy of human APP. While treatment with nicotine or MVK did not affect the amount of APP, the levels of Aβ1-40 in the culture media were significantly increased. On the other hand, the levels of Aβ1-42 were unaltered by nicotine or MVK treatment. The Aβ1-42/Aβ1-40 ratio was therefore attenuated by cigarette smoke extracts. Similar results were obtained in T-REx293 cells harboring APP of Swedish- or London-type mutation linked to familial AD. T-REx293 cells expressed the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAchR) and tubocurarine, an nAChR antagonist, completely blocked the effects of nicotine. Treatment with nicotine significantly elevated cellular levels of β-secretase that cleaves APP prior to Aβ generation. Taken together, a protective role of nicotine against AD pathology was suggested by enhanced extracellular Aβ1-40 production, which may suppress Aβ fibrillogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoichi Ohshima
- Department of Pharmacology, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine.,Department of Neurology, Kyoto Yamashiro General Medical Center
| | - Kazumi Iwata
- Department of Pharmacology, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine
| | - Masakazu Ibi
- Department of Pharmacology, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine
| | - Misaki Matsumoto
- Department of Pharmacology, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine
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19
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Lee J, Samson AAS, Song JM. Inkjet printing-based β-secretase fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) assay for screening of potential β-secretase inhibitors of Alzheimer's disease. Anal Chim Acta 2018; 1022:89-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2018.03.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Revised: 02/27/2018] [Accepted: 03/20/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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20
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Poorgholam P, Yaghmaei P, Hajebrahimi Z. Thymoquinone recovers learning function in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease. AVICENNA JOURNAL OF PHYTOMEDICINE 2018; 8:188-197. [PMID: 29881705 PMCID: PMC5987434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2017] [Revised: 10/23/2017] [Accepted: 10/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Alzheimer's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by accumulation of amyloid beta in the hippocampus. In recent decades, herbal medicine has been widely used to treat many neurodegenerative disorders,as in comparison to conventional drugs, herbal remedies exert minimal side effects. Here, the effects of thymoquinone, as the main active component of Nigella sativa, on passive avoidance memory in rat model of Alzheimer's disease, were evaluated. MATERIALS AND METHODS Hippocampal injection of amyloid beta (Aβ) was used to induce Alzheimer's disease in male Wistar rats, followed by intra peritoneal administrations of 5 and 10 mg/kg thymoquinone on a daily basis for 4 weeks. Animals were subjected to fear learning behavior in passive avoidance test and histopathological analysis of the hippocampus was done. Shuttle box test was used to evaluate the condition studying memory. Thioflavin-S and Hematoxylin and Eosine staining were done to confirm Aβ plaque formation and to evaluate the effect of thymoquinone on the pyramidal cells in the hippocampal CA1 region. RESULTS Amyloid beta caused cognitive dysfunction reflected by increasing initial and step-through latency along with plaque formation and degeneration of pyramidal cells in the hippocampus. Thymoquinone administration ameliorated this effect by significant reductions in plaque formation in CA1 region of the hippocampus and increased latency time. It also increased the number of surviving neurons in the hippocampus. CONCLUSION It seems that thymoquinone improved learning function in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease. Thus, thymoquinone could be possibly used as an anti-neurodegenerative agent for protecting hippocampal neurons against neurotoxic effects of Aβ in patients with Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parvin Poorgholam
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Parichehreh Yaghmaei
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Zahra Hajebrahimi
- Aerospace Research Institute, Ministry of Science Research and Technology, Tehran, Iran
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21
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Ohshima Y, Taguchi K, Mizuta I, Tanaka M, Tomiyama T, Kametani F, Yabe-Nishimura C, Mizuno T, Tokuda T. Mutations in the β-amyloid precursor protein in familial Alzheimer's disease increase Aβ oligomer production in cellular models. Heliyon 2018; 4:e00511. [PMID: 29560429 PMCID: PMC5857613 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Revised: 01/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Soluble oligomers of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides (AβOs) contribute to neurotoxicity in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). However, it currently remains unknown whether an increase in AβOs is the common phenotype in cellular and animal models. Furthermore, it has not yet been established whether experimental studies conducted using models overexpressing mutant genes of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) are suitable for investigating the underlying molecular mechanism of AD. We herein employed the Flp-In™ T-REx™-293 (T-REx 293) cellular system transfected with a single copy of wild-type, Swedish-, Dutch-, or London-type APP, and quantified the levels of Aβ monomers (Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42) and AβOs using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The levels of extracellular AβOs were significantly higher in Dutch- and London-type APP-transfected cells than in wild-type APP-transfected cells. Increased levels were also observed in Swedish-type APP-transfected cells. On the other hand, intracellular levels of AβOs were unaltered among wild-type and mutant APP-transfected cells. Intracellular levels of Aβ monomers were undetectable, and no common abnormality was observed in their extracellular levels or ratios (Aβ1-42/Aβ1-40) among the cells examined. We herein demonstrated that increased levels of extracellular AβOs are the common phenotype in cellular models harboring different types of APP mutations. Our results suggest that extracellular AβOs play a key role in the pathogenesis of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoichi Ohshima
- Department of Neurology, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Kawaramachi-Hirokoji, Kamikyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan.,Department of Neurology, Kyoto Yamashiro General Medical Center, 1-27 Kizu station, Kizugawa, Kyoto, 619-0214, Japan
| | - Katsutoshi Taguchi
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Kawaramachi-Hirokoji, Kamikyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
| | - Ikuko Mizuta
- Department of Neurology, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Kawaramachi-Hirokoji, Kamikyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
| | - Masaki Tanaka
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Kawaramachi-Hirokoji, Kamikyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
| | - Takami Tomiyama
- Department of Neuroscience, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-4-3 Asahimachi, Abeno-ku, Osaka, 545-8585, Japan
| | - Fuyuki Kametani
- Department of Dementia and Higher Brain Function, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, 2-1-6 Kamikitazawa, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 156-8506, Japan
| | - Chihiro Yabe-Nishimura
- Department of Pharmacology, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Kawaramachi-Hirokoji, Kamikyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
| | - Toshiki Mizuno
- Department of Neurology, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Kawaramachi-Hirokoji, Kamikyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
| | - Takahiko Tokuda
- Department of Neurology, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Kawaramachi-Hirokoji, Kamikyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan.,Department of Molecular Pathobiology of Brain Diseases, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Kawaramachi-Hirokoji, Kamikyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
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22
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Kimura J, Shimizu K, Kajima K, Yokosuka A, Mimaki Y, Oku N, Ohizumi Y. Nobiletin Reduces Intracellular and Extracellular β-Amyloid in iPS Cell-Derived Alzheimer’s Disease Model Neurons. Biol Pharm Bull 2018; 41:451-457. [DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b17-00364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Junko Kimura
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka
| | - Kosuke Shimizu
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka
| | | | - Akihito Yokosuka
- Department of Medicinal Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences
| | - Yoshihiro Mimaki
- Department of Medicinal Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences
| | - Naoto Oku
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka
| | - Yasushi Ohizumi
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka
- Kansei Fukushi Research Institute, Tohoku Fukushi University
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23
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Wang N, Jia YM, Zhang B, Xue D, Reeju M, Li Y, Huang SM, Liu XW. Neuroprotective mechanism of Kai Xin San: upregulation of hippocampal insulin-degrading enzyme protein expression and acceleration of amyloid-beta degradation. Neural Regen Res 2017; 12:654-659. [PMID: 28553348 PMCID: PMC5436366 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.205107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Kai Xin San is a Chinese herbal formula composed of Radix Ginseng, Poria, Radix Polygalae and Acorus Tatarinowii Rhizome. It has been used in China for many years for treating amnesia. Kai Xin San ameliorates amyloid-β (Aβ)-induced cognitive dysfunction and is neuroprotective in vivo, but its precise mechanism remains unclear. Expression of insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE), which degrades Aβ, is strongly correlated with cognitive function. Here, we injected rats with exogenous Aβ42 (200 μM, 5 μL) into the hippocampus and subsequently administered Kai Xin San (0.54 or 1.08 g/kg/d) intragastrically for 21 consecutive days. Hematoxylin-eosin and Nissl staining revealed that Kai Xin San protected neurons against Aβ-induced damage. Furthermore, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, western blot and polymerase chain reaction results showed that Kai Xin San decreased Aβ42 protein levels and increased expression of IDE protein, but not mRNA, in the hippocampus. Our findings reveal that Kai Xin San facilitates hippocampal Aβ degradation and increases IDE expression, which leads, at least in part, to the alleviation of hippocampal neuron injury in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Wang
- Institute of Medicine, Qiqihar Medical University, Qiqihar, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Yong-Ming Jia
- Institute of Medicine, Qiqihar Medical University, Qiqihar, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Bo Zhang
- Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Di Xue
- Institute of Medicine, Qiqihar Medical University, Qiqihar, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Maharjan Reeju
- Institute of Medicine, Qiqihar Medical University, Qiqihar, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Yan Li
- Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Shu-Ming Huang
- Department of Neuroscience, Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Xue-Wei Liu
- Institute of Medicine, Qiqihar Medical University, Qiqihar, Heilongjiang Province, China
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24
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Higuchi Y, Hashiguchi A, Yuan J, Yoshimura A, Mitsui J, Ishiura H, Tanaka M, Ishihara S, Tanabe H, Nozuma S, Okamoto Y, Matsuura E, Ohkubo R, Inamizu S, Shiraishi W, Yamasaki R, Ohyagi Y, Kira JI, Oya Y, Yabe H, Nishikawa N, Tobisawa S, Matsuda N, Masuda M, Kugimoto C, Fukushima K, Yano S, Yoshimura J, Doi K, Nakagawa M, Morishita S, Tsuji S, Takashima H. Mutations in MME cause an autosomal-recessive Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2. Ann Neurol 2016; 79:659-72. [PMID: 26991897 PMCID: PMC5069600 DOI: 10.1002/ana.24612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2015] [Revised: 01/16/2016] [Accepted: 02/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Objective The objective of this study was to identify new causes of Charcot–Marie–Tooth (CMT) disease in patients with autosomal‐recessive (AR) CMT. Methods To efficiently identify novel causative genes for AR‐CMT, we analyzed 303 unrelated Japanese patients with CMT using whole‐exome sequencing and extracted recessive variants/genes shared among multiple patients. We performed mutation screening of the newly identified membrane metalloendopeptidase (MME) gene in 354 additional patients with CMT. We clinically, genetically, pathologically, and radiologically examined 10 patients with the MME mutation. Results We identified recessive mutations in MME in 10 patients. The MME gene encodes neprilysin (NEP), which is well known to be one of the most prominent beta‐amyloid (Aβ)‐degrading enzymes. All patients had a similar phenotype consistent with late‐onset axonal neuropathy. They showed muscle weakness, atrophy, and sensory disturbance in the lower extremities. All the MME mutations could be loss‐of‐function mutations, and we confirmed a lack/decrease of NEP protein expression in a peripheral nerve. No patients showed symptoms of dementia, and 1 patient showed no excess Aβ in Pittsburgh compound‐B positron emission tomography imaging. Interpretation Our results indicate that loss‐of‐function MME mutations are the most frequent cause of adult‐onset AR‐CMT2 in Japan, and we propose that this new disease should be termed AR‐CMT2T. A loss‐of‐function MME mutation did not cause early‐onset Alzheimer's disease. Identifying the MME mutation responsible for AR‐CMT could improve the rate of molecular diagnosis and the understanding of the molecular mechanisms of CMT. Ann Neurol 2016;79:659–672
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujiro Higuchi
- Department of Neurology and Geriatrics, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Akihiro Hashiguchi
- Department of Neurology and Geriatrics, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Junhui Yuan
- Department of Neurology and Geriatrics, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Akiko Yoshimura
- Department of Neurology and Geriatrics, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Jun Mitsui
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Ishiura
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masaki Tanaka
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Satoshi Ishihara
- Department of Neurology and Geriatrics, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, Japan.,Department of Cardiovascular medicine, Nephrology and Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Hajime Tanabe
- Department of Neurology and Geriatrics, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Satoshi Nozuma
- Department of Neurology and Geriatrics, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Yuji Okamoto
- Department of Neurology and Geriatrics, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Eiji Matsuura
- Department of Neurology and Geriatrics, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Ryuichi Ohkubo
- Department of Neurology and Geriatrics, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, Japan.,Department of Neurology, Fujimoto General Hospital, Miyazaki, Japan
| | - Saeko Inamizu
- Department of Neurology, Neurological Institute, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Wataru Shiraishi
- Department of Neurology, Neurological Institute, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Ryo Yamasaki
- Department of Neurology, Neurological Institute, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Yasumasa Ohyagi
- Department of Neurology, Neurological Institute, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Jun-ichi Kira
- Department of Neurology, Neurological Institute, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Yasushi Oya
- Department of Neurology, National Center Hospital, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hayato Yabe
- Department of Neurology and Clinical Pharmacology, Ehime University Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime, Japan
| | - Noriko Nishikawa
- Department of Neurology and Clinical Pharmacology, Ehime University Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime, Japan
| | - Shinsuke Tobisawa
- Department of Neurology, Tokyo Metropolitan Neurological Hospital, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Nozomu Matsuda
- Department of Neurology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Masayuki Masuda
- Department of Neurology, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Chiharu Kugimoto
- Department of Neurology and Stroke Medicine, Yokohama City University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Fukushima
- Department of Home-Care Promotion, Shinshu University School of Medicine, Matsumoto, Japan
| | - Satoshi Yano
- Department of Neurology, Showa University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Jun Yoshimura
- Department of Computational Biology and Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Chiba, Japan
| | - Koichiro Doi
- Department of Computational Biology and Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Chiba, Japan
| | - Masanori Nakagawa
- Director of North Medical Center, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Shinichi Morishita
- Department of Computational Biology and Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Chiba, Japan
| | - Shoji Tsuji
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Takashima
- Department of Neurology and Geriatrics, Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima, Japan
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25
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Zhou L, Qian J, Liu J, Zhao R, Li B, Wang R. Identification of the sites of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal and neprilysin adduction using a linear trap quadrapole Velos Pro-Orbitrap Elite mass spectrometer. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY (CHICHESTER, ENGLAND) 2016; 22:133-139. [PMID: 27553735 DOI: 10.1255/ejms.1420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Amyloid-βdegrading enzyme neprilysin (NEP) plays a pivotal role in eliminating Aβ The oxidized modification of NEP by 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (HNE) may reduce the clearance of Aβ in cultured cells and Alzheimer's disease (AD) brains. The aim of this research is to study whether HNE could modify the NEP protein and identify the specific sites of HNE-NEP modification using a linear trap quadrapole (LTQ) Velos Pro-Orbitrap Elite mass spectrometer. NEP activity was determined after SH-SY5Y cells had incubated with HNE (20 μM) for 24 hours. To identify the sites of NEP modification, samples of both native and HNE-modified NEP digested by trypsin were analyzed using a LTQ Velos Pro-Orbitrap Elite mass spectrometer. The NEP peptide sequence information from the fragment ion masses was used to search for the sites of NEP adduction. HNE-treated cells showed a 60% loss of NEP activity. NEP was covalently adducted at Lys 93, Lys 472 by HNE via Michael addition. Compared to the control group, the sites of modified peptide in NEP showed a consistent 156 Da increased in m/z, which provides sequence information and might contribute to further studies on drug design and the therapeutics of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Zhou
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Jiao Qian
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Jianxu Liu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Ruimin Zhao
- The Department of Emergency, the Fourth People's Hospital of Shenzhen, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518033, China
| | - Bowei Li
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Rui Wang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China.
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26
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Jha NK, Jha SK, Kumar D, Kejriwal N, Sharma R, Ambasta RK, Kumar P. Impact of Insulin Degrading Enzyme and Neprilysin in Alzheimer’s Disease Biology: Characterization of Putative Cognates for Therapeutic Applications. J Alzheimers Dis 2015; 48:891-917. [DOI: 10.3233/jad-150379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Niraj Kumar Jha
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Delhi Technological University (Formerly DCE), Shahbad Daulatpur, Delhi, India
| | - Saurabh Kumar Jha
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Delhi Technological University (Formerly DCE), Shahbad Daulatpur, Delhi, India
| | - Dhiraj Kumar
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Delhi Technological University (Formerly DCE), Shahbad Daulatpur, Delhi, India
| | - Noopur Kejriwal
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Delhi Technological University (Formerly DCE), Shahbad Daulatpur, Delhi, India
| | - Renu Sharma
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Delhi Technological University (Formerly DCE), Shahbad Daulatpur, Delhi, India
| | - Rashmi K. Ambasta
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Delhi Technological University (Formerly DCE), Shahbad Daulatpur, Delhi, India
| | - Pravir Kumar
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Delhi Technological University (Formerly DCE), Shahbad Daulatpur, Delhi, India
- Department of Neurology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
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Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder in which the death of brain cells causes memory loss and cognitive decline, i.e., dementia. The disease starts with mild symptoms and gradually becomes severe. AD is one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide. Several different hallmarks of the disease have been reported such as deposits of β-amyloid around neurons, hyperphosphorylated tau protein, oxidative stress, dyshomeostasis of bio-metals, low levels of acetylcholine, etc. AD is not simple to diagnose since there is no single diagnostic test for it. Pharmacotherapy for AD currently provides only symptomatic relief and mostly targets cognitive revival. Computational biology approaches have proved to be reliable tools for the selection of novel targets and therapeutic ligands. Molecular docking is a key tool in computer-assisted drug design and development. Docking has been utilized to perform virtual screening on large libraries of compounds, and propose structural hypotheses of how the ligands bind with the target with lead optimization. Another potential application of docking is optimization stages of the drug-discovery cycle. This review summarizes the known drug targets of AD, in vivo active agents against AD, state-of-the-art docking studies done in AD, and future prospects of the docking with particular emphasis on AD.
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Unno K, Konishi T, Nakagawa A, Narita Y, Takabayashi F, Okamura H, Hara A, Yamamoto H, Iguchi K, Hoshino M, Yasui K, Katayanagi Y, Fukutomi R, Imai S. Cognitive dysfunction and amyloid β accumulation are ameliorated by the ingestion of green soybean extract in aged mice. J Funct Foods 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jff.2015.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
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Zhang LF, Zhou ZW, Wang ZH, Du YH, He ZX, Cao C, Zhou SF. Coffee and caffeine potentiate the antiamyloidogenic activity of melatonin via inhibition of Aβ oligomerization and modulation of the Tau-mediated pathway in N2a/APP cells. Drug Des Devel Ther 2014; 9:241-72. [PMID: 25565776 PMCID: PMC4284031 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s71106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
There is an increasing prevalence of Alzheimer's disease (AD), which has become a public health issue. However, the underlying mechanisms for the pathogenesis of AD are not fully understood, and the current therapeutic drugs cannot produce acceptable efficacy in AD patients. Previous animal studies have shown that coffee (Coff), caffeine (Caff), and melatonin (Mel) have beneficial effects on AD. Disturbed circadian rhythms are observed in AD, and chronotherapy has shown promising effects on AD. In this study, we examined whether a combination of Coff or Caff plus Mel produced a synergistic/additive effect on amyloid-β (Aβ) generation in Neuro-2a (N2a)/amyloid precursor protein (APP) cells and the possible mechanisms involved. Cells were treated with Coff or Caff, with or without combined Mel, with three different chronological regimens. In regimen 1, cells were treated with Coff or Caff for 12 hours in the day, followed by Mel for 12 hours in the night. For regimen 2, cells were treated with Coff or Caff plus Mel for 24 hours, from 7 am to 7 am the next day. In regimen 3, cells were treated with Coff or Caff plus Mel with regimen 1 or 2 for 5 consecutive days. The extracellular Aβ40/42 and Aβ oligomer levels were determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits. The expression and/or phosphorylation levels of glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β), Erk1/2, PI3K, Akt, Tau, Wnt3α, β-catenin, and Nrf2 were detected by Western blot assay. The results showed that regimen 1 produced an additive antiamyloidogenic effect with significantly reduced extracellular levels of Aβ40/42 and Aβ42 oligomers. Regimen 2 did not result in remarkable effects, and regimen 3 showed a less antiamyloidogenic effect compared to regimen 1. Coff or Caff, plus Mel reduced oxidative stress in N2a/APP cells via the Nrf2 pathway. Coff or Caff, plus Mel inhibited GSK3β, Akt, PI3K p55, and Tau phosphorylation but enhanced PI3K p85 and Erk1/2 phosphorylation in N2a/APP cells. Coff or Caff, plus Mel downregulated Wnt3α expression but upregulated β-catenin. However, Coff or Caff plus Mel did not significantly alter the production of T helper cell (Th)1-related interleukin (IL)-12 and interferon (IFN)-γ and Th2-related IL-4 and IL-10 in N2a/APP cells. The autophagy of cells was not affected by the combinations. Taken together, combination of Caff or Coff, before treatment with Mel elicits an additive antiamyloidogenic effects in N2a/APP cells, probably through inhibition of Aβ oligomerization and modulation of the Akt/GSK3β/Tau signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Fang Zhang
- Department of Neurology, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Zhi-Wei Zhou
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Zhen-Hai Wang
- Department of Neurology, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yan-Hui Du
- Department of Neurology, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhi-Xu He
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Regenerative Medicine, Stem Cell and Tissue Engineering Research Center and Sino-US Joint Laboratory for Medical Sciences, Guiyang Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Chuanhai Cao
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Shu-Feng Zhou
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
- Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory for Regenerative Medicine, Stem Cell and Tissue Engineering Research Center and Sino-US Joint Laboratory for Medical Sciences, Guiyang Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou, People’s Republic of China
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Nalivaeva NN, Belyaev ND, Kerridge C, Turner AJ. Amyloid-clearing proteins and their epigenetic regulation as a therapeutic target in Alzheimer's disease. Front Aging Neurosci 2014; 6:235. [PMID: 25278875 PMCID: PMC4166351 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2014.00235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2014] [Accepted: 08/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Abnormal elevation of amyloid β-peptide (Aβ) levels in the brain is the primary trigger for neuronal cell death specific to Alzheimer’s disease (AD). It is now evident that Aβ levels in the brain are manipulable due to a dynamic equilibrium between its production from the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and removal by amyloid clearance proteins. Clearance can be either enzymic or non-enzymic (binding/transport proteins). Intriguingly several of the main amyloid-degrading enzymes (ADEs) are members of the M13 peptidase family (neprilysin (NEP), NEP2 and the endothelin converting enzymes (ECE-1 and -2)). A distinct metallopeptidase, insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE), also contributes to Aβ degradation in the brain. The ADE family currently embraces more than 20 members, both membrane-bound and soluble, and of differing cellular locations. NEP plays an important role in brain function terminating neuropeptide signals. Its decrease in specific brain areas with age or after hypoxia, ischaemia or stroke contribute significantly to the development of AD pathology. The recently discovered mechanism of epigenetic regulation of NEP (and other genes) by the APP intracellular domain (AICD) and its dependence on the cell type and APP isoform expression suggest possibilities for selective manipulation of NEP gene expression in neuronal cells. We have also observed that another amyloid-clearing protein, namely transthyretin (TTR), is also regulated in the neuronal cell by a mechanism similar to NEP. Dependence of amyloid clearance proteins on histone deacetylases and the ability of HDAC inhibitors to up-regulate their expression in the brain opens new avenues for developing preventive strategies in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia N Nalivaeva
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds Leed, UK ; I.M.Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Nikolai D Belyaev
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds Leed, UK
| | - Caroline Kerridge
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds Leed, UK ; Neurodegeneration DHT, Lilly, Erl Wood Manor Windlesham, Surrey, UK
| | - Anthony J Turner
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds Leed, UK
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Miners JS, Palmer JC, Tayler H, Palmer LE, Ashby E, Kehoe PG, Love S. Aβ degradation or cerebral perfusion? Divergent effects of multifunctional enzymes. Front Aging Neurosci 2014; 6:238. [PMID: 25309424 PMCID: PMC4160973 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2014.00238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2014] [Accepted: 08/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
There is increasing evidence that deficient clearance of β-amyloid (Aβ) contributes to its accumulation in late-onset Alzheimer disease (AD). Several Aβ-degrading enzymes, including neprilysin (NEP), endothelin-converting enzyme (ECE), and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) reduce Aβ levels and protect against cognitive impairment in mouse models of AD. In post-mortem human brain tissue we have found that the activity of these Aβ-degrading enzymes rise with age and increases still further in AD, perhaps as a physiological response that helps to minimize the build-up of Aβ. ECE-1/-2 and ACE are also rate-limiting enzymes in the production of endothelin-1 (ET-1) and angiotensin II (Ang II), two potent vasoconstrictors, increases in the levels of which are likely to contribute to reduced blood flow in AD. This review considers the possible interdependence between Aβ-degrading enzymes, ischemia and Aβ in AD: ischemia has been shown to increase Aβ production both in vitro and in vivo, whereas increased Aβ probably enhances ischemia by vasoconstriction, mediated at least in part by increased ECE and ACE activity. In contrast, NEP activity may help to maintain cerebral perfusion, by reducing the accumulation of Aβ in cerebral blood vessels and lessening its toxicity to vascular smooth muscle cells. In assessing the role of Aβ-degrading proteases in the pathogenesis of AD and, particularly, their potential as therapeutic agents, it is important to bear in mind the multifunctional nature of these enzymes and to consider their effects on other substrates and pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Scott Miners
- Dementia Research Group, School of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Bristol Bristol, UK
| | - Jennifer C Palmer
- Dementia Research Group, School of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Bristol Bristol, UK
| | - Hannah Tayler
- Dementia Research Group, School of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Bristol Bristol, UK
| | - Laura E Palmer
- Dementia Research Group, School of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Bristol Bristol, UK
| | - Emma Ashby
- Dementia Research Group, School of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Bristol Bristol, UK
| | - Patrick G Kehoe
- Dementia Research Group, School of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Bristol Bristol, UK
| | - Seth Love
- Dementia Research Group, School of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Bristol Bristol, UK
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