Toward a New Kind of Vaccine: A Logical Extension of the Symmetrical Immune Network Theory

Toward a fractalomic idiotype/anti-idiotypic paradigm

The CoViD-19 pandemic has demonstrated the need for future developments in anti-viral immunology. We propose that artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning, and in particular fractal analysis could play a crucial role in that context. Fractals - never-ending repeats of self-similar shapes whose composite tend to resemble the whole - are found in most natural biological structures including immunoglobulin and antigenic epitopes. Increased knowledge of the fractalomic properties of the idiotype/anti-idiotypic paradigm should help develop a novel and improved simplified artificial model of the immune system. Case in point, the regulation and dampening of antibodies as well as the synergetic recognition of an antigen by multiple idiotypes are both immune mechanisms that require further analysis. An enhanced understanding of these complexities could lead to better data analysis for novel vaccines to improve their sensitivity and specificity as well as open other new doors in the field of immunology.

Immunomodulatory potential of anti-idiotypic antibodies for the treatment of autoimmune diseases

The immune system is a complex network of specialized cells and organs that recognises and reacts against foreign pathogens while remaining unresponsive to host tissues. This ability to self-tolerate is known as immunological tolerance. Autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system fails to differentiate between self and non-self antigens and releases autoantibodies to attack our own cells. Anti-idiotypic (anti-ID) antibodies are important in maintaining a balanced idiotypic regulatory network by neutralising and inhibiting the secretion of autoantibodies. Recently, anti-ID antibodies have been advanced as an alternative form of immunotherapy as they can specifically target autoantibodies, cause less toxicity and side effects, and could provide long-lasting immunity. This review article discusses the immunomodulatory potential of anti-ID antibodies for the treatment of autoimmune diseases.

The immune system protects the body against infections and diseases, such as by producing antibodies. Usually, these antibodies only attack pathogens, leaving healthy cells unharmed. However, autoimmune disease may develop when the immune system mistakenly recognises part of the body as foreign and produces antibodies to attack them. Antibodies that attack our own cells are called autoantibodies. Anti-idiotypic antibodies could be utilized to stop autoantibodies from attacking self cells with minimal side effects and long-lasting immunity. This review discusses anti-idiotypic antibodies usage as an alternative form of immunotherapy to inhibit autoantibodies in autoimmune disease.

Combined IMIG and Immune Ig Attenuate Allergic Responses in Beagle Dogs

Background

We previously reported attenuation of serum OVA-specific IgE levels and of lymphocyte-derived IL-4, both nominal markers of allergic immunity, following injection of a combination of homologous (mouse) polyclonal anti-idiotypic immunoglobulin (Ig) and immune Ig in BALB/c mice. We predicted this might generalize to other species and using heterologous mixtures of Igs. This was assessed in mice using OVA sensitization in the presence of human Igs as a source of both anti-idiotype Ig and immune Ig and in dogs with peanut butter-induced allergic responses.

Methods

Eight-week-old BALB/c mice received OVA immunization and 5 weekly injections of immune Ig or anti-idiotype Ig from either homologous (mouse) or heterologous (human) sources. Five-month-old Beagles received weekly topical exposure (on the abdomen) to peanut butter and treatment with pooled dog Ig and dog antirabies immune Ig, or a combination of human IMIG and human anti-Tet. All mice/dogs thereafter received a final allergen challenge, and serum IgG, IgE, and allergen-induced IL-2/IL-4 and IL-31 production in 72 hr cultures was measured.

Results

In mice attenuation of OVA-induced allergy (IgE-specific Ig and OVA-induced IL-4) was seen using both mouse and human Ig mixtures, without effect on OVA serum IgG or OVA-induced IL-2. Attenuation of concanavalin A- (ConA-) induced IL-4 : IL-2 production and of peanut butter-induced IL-4 and IL-31 was seen in dogs receiving combinations of both heterologous and homologous immune Igs and anti-idiotype Igs, with no decline in IL-2 production. Allergen-specific IgE/IgG was not detectable in dog serum, but there was a trend to lower total serum IgE levels (and decreased IgE : IgG ratios).

Conclusion

Homologous and heterologous combinations of polyclonal IMIG and immune Ig attenuate allergic responses in mice and dogs. This treatment protocol represents a novel approach which can be adapted for allergic desensitization in veterinary and human use.

Combined IMIG and immune Ig attenuates inflammatory colitis in mice

BACKGROUND

Using a combination of homologous and heterologous (mouse/human) polyclonal anti-idiotypic Igs and immune Igs in BALB/c mice we have previously reported attenuation of allergic type responses following OVA immunization. We have now investigated attenuation of an inflammatory colitis in C57BL/6 mice receiving dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) in their drinking water, using additional treatment of DSS-exposed mice with combined human Igs, commercial IVIG (given IM, hence hereafter IMIG) as a source of pooled anti-idiotype Ig, and human anti-Tet as immune Ig.

METHODS

Acute or chronic colitis was induced by DSS in groups of C57BL/6 mice. Mice also received weekly immunotherapy with im injections of polyclonal immune Ig, polyclonal anti-idiotype Ig, or the combined Igs, for a total of 5 injections, beginning with DSS treatment or after 2 cycles of DSS. Weight loss and mortality were monitored daily, and the extent of colitis was determined further using colonic length measurement, and by ELISA measurement of inflammatory cytokines in supernatants from colonic explant cultures.

RESULTS

Mice developed colitis in both the acute and chronic models with loss of body weight, shortened colon lengths, and increased expression of inflammatory cytokines in colonic tissue. Loss of body weight, and inflammatory cytokine production, was attenuated only in chronic colitis, and only after combined IMIG and immune Ig treatment, and not in groups receiving only IMIG or immune Ig alone.

CONCLUSION

Heterologous combinations of polyclonal IMIG and immune Ig can attenuate inflammatory colitis in mice. Given the described efficacy of this treatment for allergic desensitization, we hypothesize this methodology may have widespread clinic utility.

Mechanism(s) of prolonged attenuation of allergic responses after modulation of idiotypic regulatory network

BACKGROUND

We showed previously that allergic reactivity to ovalbumin (OVA) could be regulated in mice following perturbation of immune networks using combinations of an immune Ig along with anti-idiotypic Ig. We have explored features of this regulation including: its persistence after cessation of administration of combined Igs; the ability of heterologous Igs to produce immunoregulation; a role for Treg induction in regulation; and the ability to attenuate responses in mice pre-sensitized to an allergic stimulus.

METHODS

BALB/c mice were sensitized to OVA. Mice also received 5 weekly injections of immune Ig or anti-idiotype Ig (at separate sites) from either homologous (mouse) or heterologous (human) sources. In the latter case pooled IVIG (given IM, hence hereafter IMIG) was used as a source of anti-idiotype Ig, and human anti-Tet as immune Ig. Injections of the Ig were given from the time of OVA sensitization (to attenuate development of immunity), or after pre-sensitization of mice (to attenuate existing allergic responses). All mice were assayed for development of OVA-specific serum IgE and IgG, as well as the production of OVA-induced IL-2, IL-4, IL-13, IL-31 and IL-33 in splenocytes cultured for 72 h. In studies examining possible mechanism(s) responsible for inhibition of immunity mice received, in addition to the Ig treatments described, infusion of depleting anti-CD4, and/or anti-CD8 antibodies, or a mAb to TNFSFR25, known to expand Tregs implicated in regulation of Allo immunity.

RESULTS

Combinations of both heterologous and homologous immune Igs and anti-idiotype Igs attenuated OVA allergic responses in both naïve and pre-sensitized mice. This attenuation persisted in mice greater than 14 weeks after cessation of treatment with the Igs used. Finally, depletion of either CD4 or CD8 cells ameliorated the suppressive effect seen, while the combination of anti-CD4 and anti-CD8 essentially abolished suppression. Suppression was further enhanced by anti-TNFSFR25 mAb.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that the combine Ig treatment protocols used produced a long-lasting suppression of allergic immunity, even in pre-sensitized animals. The effects seem to depend upon induction and expansion of Tregs and represents a novel approach to treatment of allergic disease in humans and other animals.