Improving pharmacotherapy outcomes by pharmacogenomics: from expectation to reality?

Nursing Personnel in the Era of Personalized Healthcare in Clinical Practice

Personalized, stratified, or precision medicine (PM) introduces a new era in healthcare that tries to identify and predict optimum treatment outcomes for a patient or a cohort. It also introduces new scientific terminologies regarding therapeutic approaches and the need of their adoption from healthcare providers. Till today, evidence-based practice (EBP) was focusing on population averages and their variances among cohorts for clinical values that are essential for optimizing healthcare outcome. It can be stated that EBP and PM are complementary approaches for a modern healthcare system. Healthcare providers through EBP often see the forest (population averages) but miss the trees (individual patients), whereas utilization of PM may not see the forest for the trees. Nursing personnel (NP) play an important role in modern healthcare since they are consulting, educating, and providing care to patients whose needs often needs to be individualized (personalized nursing care, PNC). Based on the clinical issues earlier addressed from clinical pharmacology, EBP, and now encompassed in PM, this review tries to describe the challenges that NP have to face in order to meet the requisites of the new era in healthcare. It presents the demands that should be met for upgrading the provided education and expertise of NP toward an updated role in a modern healthcare system.

Enabling personalized cancer medicine decisions: The challenging pharmacological approach of PBPK models for nanomedicine and pharmacogenomics (Review)

The existing tumor heterogeneity and the complexity of cancer cell biology critically demand powerful translational tools with which to support interdisciplinary efforts aiming to advance personalized cancer medicine decisions in drug development and clinical practice. The development of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models to predict the effects of drugs in the body facilitates the clinical translation of genomic knowledge and the implementation of in vivo pharmacology experience with pharmacogenomics. Such a direction unequivocally empowers our capacity to also make personalized drug dosage scheme decisions for drugs, including molecularly targeted agents and innovative nanoformulations, i.e. in establishing pharmacotyping in prescription. In this way, the applicability of PBPK models to guide individualized cancer therapeutic decisions of broad clinical utility in nanomedicine in real-time and in a cost-affordable manner will be discussed. The latter will be presented by emphasizing the need for combined efforts within the scientific borderlines of genomics with nanotechnology to ensure major benefits and productivity for nanomedicine and personalized medicine interventions.

Nanomedicine and personalized medicine toward the application of pharmacotyping in clinical practice to improve drug-delivery outcomes

Recent technological advances in nanomedicine and nanotechnology in parallel with knowledge accumulated from the clinical translation of disease- and drug-related genomic data have created fertile ground for personalized medicine to emerge as the new direction in diagnosis and drug therapy. To this end, the development of sophisticated nano-based systems for targeted drug delivery, along with the advent of pharmacogenomics, moves the drug-prescription process toward pharmacotyping, e.g., the individualized adjustment of drug selection and dosage. However, the clinical validity and utility of pharmacogenomic testing must be demonstrated by cost-effectiveness analysis and establishment of clinical-practice reimbursement codes. Within this framework, and to achieve major benefits for all patients worldwide, a multidisciplinary scientific and technological infrastructure has to be organized in the healthcare system to address better the issues affecting regulatory environment, clinical pharmacology guidelines, education, bioethics and genomics data dissemination.

FROM THE CLINICAL EDITOR

Individualized pharmacotyping, patient and disease-specific delivery of drugs, combining nanotechnology and pharmagenomics-based approaches would result in much more specific and efficient treatment of a variety of illnesses. While this clearly is one of the main cornerstones of individualized medicine; the cost effective integration of this complex technology is far from trivial, as discussed in details in this opinion paper.

Drug safety assurance through clinical genotyping: near-term considerations for a system-wide implementation of personalized medicine

The rationale and overall system-wide behavior of a clinical genotyping information system (both DNA analysis and data management) requires a near-term, scalable approach, which is emerging in the focused implementation of pharmacogenomics and drug safety assurance. The challenges to implementing a successful clinical genotyping system are described, as are how the benefits of a focused, near-term system for drug safety assessment and assurance overcome the logistical and operational challenges that perpetually hinder the development of a societal-scale clinical genotyping system. This rationale is based on the premise that a focused application domain for clinical genotyping, specifically drug safety assurance, provides a transition paradigm for both professionals and consumers of healthcare, thereby facilitating the movement of genotyping from bench to bedside and paving the way for the adoption of prognostic and diagnostic applications in clinical genomics.

Clinical Translation of Genotyping and Haplotyping Data

The completion of the Human Genome Project has raised expectations for the translation of genomic knowledge into clinical forms that would lead to improved diagnosis of diseases and identification of new drug targets. Such an opportunity is quite challenging within science and society, although there is still uncertainty regarding its outcomes in new drug development and healthcare. Undoubtedly, however, the recent approval by the US FDA of the first two pharmacogenomic tests for genotyping drug-metabolising enzymes is expected to empower and eventually lead to general applicability of various genetic diagnostic tools to improve pharmacotherapy outcomes in the post-genomic era. To this end, the application of genomic knowledge and technologies in everyday clinical practice leads personalised medicine concepts towards the achievement of individualised drug selection and dosage profiling (i.e. pharmacotyping) for ensuring maximum drug effectiveness and safety. Within this framework, pharmacogenomic information can implement the existing clinical pharmacology experience in clinical diagnosis and drug delivery. The latter can be further advanced through the development of workflow information-based operating systems in healthcare to support the utilisation, assessment and outcome of engaged clinical and genomic information. Such a direction may help to suitably revise and adjust clinical regulatory guidelines as well as clinical pharmacology guidelines. This will further facilitate better designing of clinical trials for new drug development as well as pharmacovigilance registries and evaluation of these data. To critically describe the existing environment, this article comprehensively discusses scientific efforts aimed at making clinical translation of genotyping and haplotyping data more efficient and productive in forms that are readily applicable in everyday healthcare. In addition, specific and systematic pharmacogenomic and clinical attempts related to the development of new molecularly targeted drugs, as well as improvement of the efficacy and safety of commonly prescribed drugs, are presented. To this end, the clinical pharmacogenomic experience gained thus far in the use of tyrosine kinase inhibitors in oncology, as well as the process of empowerment through the use of genomic knowledge of the cardiac safety of drugs modulating the function of the human ether-à-go-go-related gene (HERG) potassium channel, represent examples of how the implementation of clinical experience with genomic information guides the development of new drugs and the improvement of pharmacotherapy outcomes.