Deciphering the significance of the T-cell response to Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus-Cure-Associated Antigens Elicit Type 3 Immune Memory T Cells

BACKGROUND

Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most frequently major mastitis pathogens that cause clinical and subclinical mastitis worldwide. Current antimicrobial treatments are usually ineffective, and the commercially available vaccines lack proven effectiveness. The immunological response elicited by the recombinant S. aureus-cure-associated proteins phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK), enolase (ENO), and elongation factor-G (EF-G) in combination with the granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) DNA vaccination was studied in this work.

METHODS

Here, twenty-three C57BL/6 mice were divided into four groups and vaccinated with: G1: none (control); G2: GM-CSF DNA plasmid DNA vaccine; G3: the combination of EF-G+ENO+PGK; and G4: the combinations of EF-G+ENO+PGK proteins plus GM-CSF plasmid DNA vaccine. After 44 days, spleen cells were collected for immunophenotyping and lymphocyte proliferation evaluation by flow cytometry upon S. aureus stimulus.

RESULTS

Immunization with the three S. aureus recombinant proteins alone resulted in a higher percentage of IL-17A⁺ cells among CD8⁺ T central memory cells, as well as the highest intensity of IL-17A production by overall lymphocytes indicating that the contribution of the combined lymphocyte populations is crucial to sustaining a type 3 cell immunity environment.

CONCLUSION

The immunization with three S. aureus-cure-associated recombinant proteins triggered type 3 immunity, which is a highly interesting path to pursue an effective bovine S. aureus mastitis vaccine.

Staphylococcus aureus Protection-Related Type 3 Cell-Mediated Immune Response Elicited by Recombinant Proteins and GM-CSF DNA Vaccine

Staphylococcus aureus mastitis remains a major challenge for dairy farming. Here, 24 mice were immunized and divided into four groups: G1: control; G2: Granulocyte Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor (GM-CSF) DNA vaccine; G3: F0F1 ATP synthase subunit α (SAS), succinyl-diaminopimelate (SDD), and cysteinyl-tRNA synthetase (CTS) recombinant proteins; and G4: SAS+SDD+CTS plus GM-CSF DNA vaccine. The lymphocyte subpopulations, and the intracellular interleukin-17A (IL-17A) and interferon-γ production in the draining lymph node cells were immunophenotyped by flow cytometry. The immunophenotyping and lymphocyte proliferation was determined in spleen cells cultured with and without S. aureus stimulus. Immunization with S. aureus recombinant proteins generated memory cells in draining lymph nodes. Immunization with the three recombinant proteins plus GM-CSF DNA led to an increase in the percentage of IL-17A⁺ cells among overall CD44⁺ (memory), T CD4⁺, CD4⁺ T CD44⁺ CD27^-, γδ TCR, γδ TCR⁺ CD44⁺ CD27⁺, and TCRVγ4⁺ cells. Vaccination with S. aureus recombinant proteins associated with GM-CSF DNA vaccine downregulated T_H2 immunity. Immunization with the three recombinant proteins plus the GM-CSF DNA led to a proliferation of overall memory T, CD4⁺, and CD4⁺ TEM cells upon S. aureus stimulus. This approach fostered type 3 immunity, suggesting the development of a protective immune response against S. aureus.

Immune Polarization Potential of the S. aureus Virulence Factors SplB and GlpQ and Modulation by Adjuvants

Protection against Staphylococcus aureus is determined by the polarization of the anti-bacterial immune effector mechanisms. Virulence factors of S. aureus can modulate these and induce differently polarized immune responses in a single individual. We proposed that this may be due to intrinsic properties of the bacterial proteins. To test this idea, we selected two virulence factors, the serine protease-like protein B (SplB) and the glycerophosphoryl diester phosphodiesterase (GlpQ). In humans naturally exposed to S. aureus, SplB induces a type 2-biased adaptive immune response, whereas GlpQ elicits type 1/type 3 immunity. We injected the recombinant bacterial antigens into the peritoneum of S. aureus-naïve C57BL/6N mice and analyzed the immune response. This was skewed by SplB toward a Th2 profile including specific IgE, whereas GlpQ was weakly immunogenic. To elucidate the influence of adjuvants on the proteins’ polarization potential, we studied Montanide ISA 71 VG and Imject™Alum, which promote a Th1 and Th2 response, respectively. Alum strongly increased antibody production to the Th2-polarizing protein SplB, but did not affect the response to GlpQ. Montanide enhanced the antibody production to both S. aureus virulence factors. Montanide also augmented the inflammation in general, whereas Alum had little effect on the cellular immune response. The adjuvants did not override the polarization potential of the S. aureus proteins on the adaptive immune response.

Challenges for Clinical Development of Vaccines for Prevention of Hospital-Acquired Bacterial Infections

Increasing antibiotic resistance in bacteria causing endogenous infections has entailed a need for innovative approaches to therapy and prophylaxis of these infections and raised a new interest in vaccines for prevention of colonization and infection by typically antibiotic resistant pathogens. Nevertheless, there has been a long history of failures in late stage clinical development of this type of vaccines, which remains not fully understood. This article provides an overview on present and past vaccine developments targeting nosocomial bacterial pathogens; it further highlights the specific challenges associated with demonstrating clinical efficacy of these vaccines and the facts to be considered in future study designs. Notably, these vaccines are mainly applied to subjects with preexistent immunity to the target pathogen, transient or chronic immunosuppression and ill-defined microbiome status. Unpredictable attack rates and changing epidemiology as well as highly variable genetic and immunological strain characteristics complicate the development. In views of the clinical need, re-thinking of the study designs and expectations seems warranted: first of all, vaccine development needs to be footed on a clear rationale for choosing the immunological mechanism of action and the optimal time point for vaccination, e.g., (1) prevention (or reduction) of colonization vs. prevention of infection and (2) boosting of a preexistent immune response vs. altering the quality of the immune response. Furthermore, there are different, probably redundant, immunological and microbiological defense mechanisms that provide protection from infection. Their interplay is not well-understood but as a consequence their effect might superimpose vaccine-mediated resolution of infection and lead to failure to demonstrate efficacy. This implies that improved characterization of patient subpopulations within the trial population should be obtained by pro- and retrospective analyses of trial data on subject level. Statistical and systems biology approaches could help to define immune and microbiological biomarkers that discern populations that benefit from vaccination from those where vaccines might not be effective.

Pathogenesis of Intradermal Staphylococcal Infections: Rabbit Experimental Approach to Natural Staphylococcus aureus Skin Infections

Despite the enormous efforts made to achieve effective tools that fight against Staphylococcus aureus, the results have not been successful. This failure may be due to the absence of truly representative experimental models. To overcome this deficiency, the present work describes and immunologically characterizes the infection for 28 days, in an experimental low-dose (300 colony-forming units) intradermal model of infection in rabbits, which reproduces the characteristic staphylococcal abscess. Surprisingly, when mutant strains in the genes involved in virulence (JΔagr, JΔcoaΔvwb, JΔhla, and JΔpsmα) were inoculated, no strong effect on the severity of lesions was observed, unlike other models that use high doses of bacteria. The inoculation of a human rabbitized (FdltB^r) strain demonstrated its capacity to generate a similar inflammatory response to a wild-type rabbit strain and, therefore, validated this model for conducting these experimental studies with human strains. To conclude, this model proved reproducible and may be an option of choice to check both wild-type and mutant strains of different origins.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Since the 1960s, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has emerged, disseminated globally and become a leading cause of bacterial infections in both health-care and community settings. However, there is marked geographical variation in MRSA burden owing to several factors, including differences in local infection control practices and pathogen-specific characteristics of the circulating clones. Different MRSA clones have resulted from the independent acquisition of staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec), which contains genes encoding proteins that render the bacterium resistant to most β-lactam antibiotics (such as methicillin), by several S. aureus clones. The success of MRSA is a consequence of the extensive arsenal of virulence factors produced by S. aureus combined with β-lactam resistance and, for most clones, resistance to other antibiotic classes. Clinical manifestations of MRSA range from asymptomatic colonization of the nasal mucosa to mild skin and soft tissue infections to fulminant invasive disease with high mortality. Although treatment options for MRSA are limited, several new antimicrobials are under development. An understanding of colonization dynamics, routes of transmission, risk factors for progression to infection and conditions that promote the emergence of resistance will enable optimization of strategies to effectively control MRSA. Vaccine candidates are also under development and could become an effective prevention measure.