Novel T-cell-based vaccines via arming polyclonal CD4+ T cells with antigen-specific exosomes

Exosome-Based Nanoplatforms: The Emerging Tools for Breast Cancer Therapy

Breast cancer (BC) remains the leading malignant tumor type among females worldwide. The patients with BC are still faced with undesirable metastasis, relapse rate, and drug resistance. Exosomes are defined as naturally occurring extracellular vesicles (EVs) with typical biomarkers that reflect the characteristics of the parent cells. Exosomes are crucial mediators involved in intercellular communication. By transferring multiple cargoes, represented by proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, metabolites, exosomes contribute to reshaping the recipient cell function and fate. Growing evidence has documented that exosomes originating from BC cells are important participants involved in BC progression and treatments. Nanoparticle-based technology is the cutting-edge field for renewing pharmaceuticals and has endowed deep improvements in precise BC treatment. Additionally, due to their perfect features of the low immune prototype, limited adverse effects, prolongated circulation, and easy modification, exosomes have received much attention as candidates in nano-medicine of BC. The nanoplatforms constructed by exosomes have safety, intelligence, biomimetic, and controlled released advantages for combating BC. Here, we emphasize the multiple exosomes from a variety of cell sources in constructing nanoplatforms for BC therapy, mainly including exosomes and their cargoes, genetically engineered exosomes, and exosome-based carriers. This field would shed light on the promising exosome-based delivery system in BC therapy.

Biological roles and potential applications of immune cell-derived extracellular vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) deliver bioactive macromolecules (i.e. proteins, lipids and nucleic acids) for intercellular communication in multicellular organisms. EVs are secreted by all cell types including immune cells. Immune cell-derived EVs modulate diverse aspects of the immune system to either enhance or suppress immune activities. The extensive effects of immune cell-derived EVs have become the focus of great interest for various nano-biomedical applications, ranging from the medical use of nanoplatform-based diagnostic agents to the development of therapeutic interventions as well as vaccine applications, and thus may be ideal for ‘immune-theranostic’. Here, we review the latest advances concerning the biological roles of immune cell-derived EVs in innate and acquired immunity. The intercellular communication amongst immune cells through their EVs is highlighted, showing that all immune cell-derived EVs have their unique function(s) in immunity through intricate interaction(s). Natural-killer (NK) cell-derived EVs, for example, contain potent cytotoxic proteins and induce apoptosis to targeted cancer cells. On the other hand, cancer cell-derived EVs bearing NK ligands may evade immune surveillance and responses. Finally, we discuss possible medical uses for the immune cell-derived EVs as a tool for immune-theranostic: as diagnostic biomarkers, for use in therapeutic interventions and for vaccination.