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Gao X, Zuo S. Immune landscape and immunotherapy of hepatocellular carcinoma: focus on innate and adaptive immune cells. Clin Exp Med 2023; 23:1881-1899. [PMID: 36773210 PMCID: PMC10543580 DOI: 10.1007/s10238-023-01015-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2023] [Accepted: 01/27/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is responsible for roughly 90% of all cases of primary liver cancer, and the cases are on the rise. The treatment of advanced HCC is a serious challenge. Immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapy has marked a watershed moment in the history of HCC systemic treatment. Atezolizumab in combination with bevacizumab has been approved as a first-line treatment for advanced HCC since 2020; however, the combination therapy is only effective in a limited percentage of patients. Considering that the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) has a great impact on immunotherapies for HCC, an in-depth understanding of the immune landscape in tumors and the current immunotherapeutic approaches is extremely necessary. We elaborate on the features, functions, and cross talk of the innate and adaptive immune cells in HCC and highlight the benefits and drawbacks of various immunotherapies for advanced HCC, as well as future projections. HCC consists of a heterogeneous group of cancers with distinct etiologies and immune microenvironments. Almost all the components of innate and adaptive immune cells in HCC have altered, showing a decreasing trend in the number of tumor suppressor cells and an increasing trend in the pro-cancer cells, and there is also cross talk between various cell types. Various immunotherapies for HCC have also shown promising efficacy and application prospect. There are multilayered interwoven webs among various immune cell types in HCC, and emerging evidence demonstrates the promising prospect of immunotherapeutic approaches for HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqiang Gao
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, No. 28, Guiyi Street, Guiyang, 550000, Guizhou, China
- Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Shi Zuo
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, No. 28, Guiyi Street, Guiyang, 550000, Guizhou, China.
- Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou, China.
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Chen J, Ding Y, Huang F, Lan R, Wang Z, Huang W, Chen R, Wu B, Fu L, Yang Y, Liu J, Hong J, Zhang W, Zhang L. Irradiated whole-cell vaccine suppresses hepatocellular carcinoma growth in mice via Th9 cells. Oncol Lett 2021; 21:409. [PMID: 33841570 PMCID: PMC8020379 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2021.12670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Liver cancer is one of the most common malignant tumors with no available satisfactory treatment. The aim of the present study was to investigate the anti-tumor effect of an irradiated hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) whole-cell vaccine and its underlying mechanisms. Hepa1-6 and H22 HCC cell lines were irradiated in preparation for whole-cell vaccine production. Subsequently, two HCC tumor-bearing mouse models were created by injecting these Hepa1-6 and H22 cells into the abdominal skin of C57BL/6 and ICR mice, respectively. The mice were immunized with the corresponding whole-cell vaccine the next day, and then once a week until the end of the experimental period. Tumor growth, blood T helper (Th)9 cells and plasma interleukin (IL)-9 levels were monitored during the immunization period. Th9 cells were also induced by in vitro co-culture of the whole-cell vaccine with lymphocytes from the spleen and lymph nodes of the corresponding mice. Alterations of gene expression in transcription factor (TF) were determined by reverse transcription-quantitative PCR, and Th9 cells were detected using flow cytometry. The whole-cell vaccine effectively suppressed HCC tumor growth, as indicated by slower tumor growth and a smaller tumor size in the immunized group compared with the control. The percentage of blood Th9 cells and the concentration of plasma IL-9 were significantly increased in the immunized group. The whole-cell vaccine also induced Th9 cell differentiation and upregulated the expression of TFs PU.1, interferon regulatory factor 4 and basic leucine zipper transcriptional factor ATF-like. These results suggest that the irradiated HCC whole-cell vaccine inhibited tumor growth by increasing Th9 cell numbers in HCC mice
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Affiliation(s)
- Junying Chen
- Central Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China.,Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Precision Medicine for Cancer, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory of Radiation Biology of Fujian Province Universities, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China
| | - Yuxiong Ding
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Precision Medicine for Cancer, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory of Radiation Biology of Fujian Province Universities, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China
| | - Fei Huang
- Central Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China.,Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Precision Medicine for Cancer, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory of Radiation Biology of Fujian Province Universities, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China
| | - Ruilong Lan
- Central Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China.,Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Precision Medicine for Cancer, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory of Radiation Biology of Fujian Province Universities, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China
| | - Zeng Wang
- Central Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China.,Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Precision Medicine for Cancer, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory of Radiation Biology of Fujian Province Universities, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China
| | - Weikang Huang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Precision Medicine for Cancer, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory of Radiation Biology of Fujian Province Universities, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China
| | - Ruiqing Chen
- Central Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China.,Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Precision Medicine for Cancer, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory of Radiation Biology of Fujian Province Universities, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China
| | - Bing Wu
- Central Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China.,Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Precision Medicine for Cancer, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory of Radiation Biology of Fujian Province Universities, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China
| | - Lengxi Fu
- Central Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China.,Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Precision Medicine for Cancer, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory of Radiation Biology of Fujian Province Universities, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China
| | - Yunhua Yang
- Department of Otolaryngology, Fujian Provincial Geriatric Hospital, Fuzhou, Fujian 350009, P.R. China
| | - Jun Liu
- Laboratory of Radiobiology, Fujian Medical University Cancer Hospital, Fuzhou, Fujian 350014, P.R. China
| | - Jinsheng Hong
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Precision Medicine for Cancer, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory of Radiation Biology of Fujian Province Universities, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China
| | - Weijian Zhang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Precision Medicine for Cancer, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory of Radiation Biology of Fujian Province Universities, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China
| | - Lurong Zhang
- Central Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China.,Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Precision Medicine for Cancer, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China.,Key Laboratory of Radiation Biology of Fujian Province Universities, The First Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350005, P.R. China.,Laboratory of Radiobiology, Fujian Medical University Cancer Hospital, Fuzhou, Fujian 350014, P.R. China
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