Concurrent Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease and impressive response to immune checkpoint blockade in metastatic melanoma

Immune checkpoint inhibitor-associated Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada-like syndrome: A descriptive systematic review

TOPIC

Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada (VKH)-like uveitis is uniquely reported with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) and BRAF/MEK inhibitors. This article aims to provide a comprehensive portrait of the comorbidities, ocular presentations, treatments, and visual outcomes of patients with VKH-like uveitis following ICI therapy.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

ICIs are increasingly used in cancer therapy, but poorly understood ocular immune-related adverse events (irAEs) can lead to suspension of treatment and be vision-threatening.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic review (PROSPERO #CRD42024558269) according to PRISMA guidelines. MEDLINE, Embase, CENTRAL, and Web of Science were searched for English articles published up to June 28, 2024. All study designs reporting on incident VKH-like uveitis following ICI were included. Risk of Bias was assessed using a tool modified from Murad et al. (2018).

RESULTS

Of 865 articles, we included 42 articles (4 observational studies, 28 case reports, 6 case series, 3 letters, and 1 editorial) from 12 countries, comprising 52 patients. The mean age was 60.0 ± 11.9 years, and 32 (61.5%) were females. Thirty-six (69.2%) had melanoma, and most were undergoing treatment with a PD-1 inhibitor alone (n = 33, 63.5%) or in combination with a CTLA-4 inhibitor (n = 10, 19.2%). The mean duration of ICI treatment before VKH-like uveitis symptoms was 22.2 ± 29.6 weeks, and the mean duration of ocular symptoms was 16.7 ± 18.6 weeks, with wide variation. Overall, 43 patients (73.1%) had imaging or exams suggesting bilateral involvement and 21 cases (40.4%) suggesting panuveitis. Only 31 cases (59.6%) met the acute initial-onset uveitis criteria, and 15 (28.8%) met the chronic phase criteria. Most (n = 47, 90.4%) required systemic or intravitreal steroids, termination of ICI (n = 31, 59.6%), and experienced full resolution or remission of visual symptoms (n = 43, 82.7%). Most articles (n = 40, 95.2%) were judged to be at medium risk of bias.

CONCLUSION

This descriptive systematic review consisted mostly of case reports, but it confirmed that a high proportion of VKH-like uveitis occur with PD-1 inhibitors and melanoma patients. VKH-like uveitis can lead to suspension of treatment. Further collaboration between oncologists and ophthalmologists is needed in the continuum of cancer care.

Pathogenic Mechanisms of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor (ICI)-Associated Retinal and Choroidal Adverse Reactions

PURPOSE

To summarize and categorize postulated mechanisms of immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI)-mediated retinal and choroidal inflammation and discuss resulting implications for evaluation and management of these adverse reactions.

DESIGN

Targeted literature review with interpretation and perspective METHODS: We performed a review of selected literature describing immune-mediated retinal and choroidal adverse reactions associated with ICI therapy, synthesizing and categorizing the likely underlying pathogenic mechanisms. Based on these mechanistic categories, we provide perspective on a rational approach to the evaluation of patients with ICI-associated inflammatory disorders of the retina and choroid.

RESULTS

ICI-induced posterior segment adverse reactions can be categorized into 3 major mechanisms of unintended, targeted inflammation that share similarities to immunotherapy-related adverse events (irAEs) seen in other organ systems. In Type 1 reactions, T cell activation by ICIs can result in cross-reactivity of anti-tumor T cells with ocular tissues (Type 1a) or expansion of eye-specific T cells in predisposed individuals (Type 1b), leading to ocular inflammation that mimics known uveitic conditions. In Type 2 reactions, nonspecific ocular or systemic inflammation exacerbated by ICI use can cause retinal vasculitis through a "bystander" mechanism, potentially resulting in vision-threatening vascular occlusions. Finally, in Type 3 reactions, ICI use can prompt autoantibody-mediated inflammation and/or exacerbation of paraneoplastic processes likely related to T cell driven expansion of B cell populations.

CONCLUSIONS

Although relatively uncommon, posterior segment inflammatory disorders associated with systemic ICI therapy may be vision-threatening if not identified and treated appropriately. We propose that the pathogenic mechanisms underlying these chorioretinopathies falls into 3 major categories involving inadvertent T cell mediated inflammation. Visual prognosis with appropriate treatment is generally favorable, but some reactions, such as longstanding exudative retinal detachments and ICI-induced occlusive retinal vasculitis, can result in permanent visual defects.

The Impact of Monoclonal Antibody Usage on Hearing Outcomes: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVE

To ascertain trends in ototoxicity observed with monoclonal antibodies (mABs) and understand the impact they may have on hearing function.

DATA SOURCES

PubMed, Embase, Scopus.

REVIEW METHODS

A systematic review was performed following PRISMA guidelines. Data were reviewed for demographics, utilized mABs with respective indication and dosing, audiometric outcomes, and treatment for otologic effects.

RESULTS

Of 757 studies reviewed, a total of 44 were included, encompassing 18,046 patients treated with mABs. Mean age of the sample was 57.8 years old. The search yielded 18 agents of ototoxicity, with reported symptoms of ototoxicity such as hearing loss, tinnitus, and/or aural fullness occurring in 1079 of total patients. Main agents causing ototoxicity were teprotumumab (n = 17/44 studies), nivolumab (n = 10/44), ipilimumab (n = 9/44), pembrolizumab (n = 5/44), and rituximab (n = 4/44). Thirty-one of 44 studies encompassing eight agents reported audiometric data for ototoxic agents, showing sensorineural hearing loss primarily in the high-frequency range. Only two articles performed ultrahigh-frequency audiograms.

CONCLUSION

Monoclonal antibody usage is expanding, but the vast majority of studies lack substantial audiometric data. Where reported, study design and inclusion criteria vary greatly. Future studies would benefit from rigid inclusion of audiometric data, prospective study design, and consideration of formal ototoxicity screening. Otolaryngologists should be aware of the cochlear immune response and potential impact of this expanding medication class on hearing function. Laryngoscope, 135:491-506, 2025.

VKH-like syndrome in the setting of Dabrafenib and Trametinib therapy for BRAF mutant metastatic melanoma: a case report

Dabrafenib and trametinib, approved for the treatment of BRAF-mutant metastatic melanoma, are associated with a spectrum ophthalmic toxicity including pan-uveitis and serous retinopathy. Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada (VKH) is a systemic inflammatory disorder characterized by bilateral granulomatous pan-uveitis, exudative retinal detachments, and often associated with extraocular manifestations such as tinnitus, vitiligo, headaches, or encephalopathy. We present a 49-year-old woman with stage IV metastatic cutaneous melanoma developed bilateral acute pan-uveitis with multifocal serous retinal detachments, 4 months after starting combined dabrafenib and trametinib therapy. Clinical assessment, together with fluorescein angiography, optical coherence tomography, and serology led to the diagnosis of a (VKH)-like uveitis. Prompt systemic corticosteroids and modification of the dosing schedule of the suspected offending agents resulted in the resolution of intraocular inflammation and serous retinal detachments. This case underscores the importance of the prompt recognition of the association between VKH-like uveitis and BRAF/MEK inhibitors, enabling early intervention without compromising metastatic melanoma treatment.

Diagnosing and Managing Uveitis Associated with Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors: A Review

This review aims to provide an understanding of the diagnostic and therapeutic challenges of uveitis associated with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI). In the wake of these molecules being increasingly employed as a treatment against different cancers, cases of uveitis post-ICI therapy have also been increasingly reported in the literature, warranting an extensive exploration of the clinical presentations, risk factors, and pathophysiological mechanisms of ICI-induced uveitis. This review further provides an understanding of the association between ICIs and uveitis, and assesses the efficacy of current diagnostic tools, underscoring the need for advanced techniques to enable early detection and accurate assessment. Further, it investigates the therapeutic strategies for ICI-related uveitis, weighing the benefits and limitations of existing treatment regimens, and discussing current challenges and emerging therapies in the context of their potential efficacy and side effects. Through an overview of the short-term and long-term outcomes, this article suggests recommendations and emphasizes the importance of multidisciplinary collaboration between ophthalmologists and oncologists. Finally, the review highlights promising avenues for future research and development in the field, potentially informing transformative approaches in the ocular assessment of patients under immunotherapy and the management of uveitis following ICI therapy.

Immune checkpoint inhibitor-related hearing loss: a systematic review and analysis of individual patient data

PURPOSE

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are related to various immune-related adverse events (irAEs). However, the knowledge is limited with rare irAEs like hearing loss. Therefore, we evaluated the characteristics, presentation, and treatment of ICI-related hearing loss by reviewing the individual patient data from the previous studies.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic search of the Web of Science, PubMed, and Embase databases for studies published until 17 November 2022. The selected MeSH search terms were "hearing loss" OR "hearing impairment" OR "ototoxicity" OR "vestibular toxicity" OR "audiovestibular toxicity" AND "immune checkpoint inhibitor" OR "immunotherapy."

RESULTS

A total of 38 patients were included. Melanoma was the most frequent diagnosis (73.7%). The median time from ICI initiation to hearing loss development was 3 months. The hearing impairment was secondary to bilateral sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) in 24 (68.6%) patients, and at least one other irAE accompanied the hearing loss in 24 patients. Hearing loss significantly improved in 45.7% of the patients. The overall response rate and disease control rate were 67.6% and 85.3%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

We observed that most cases of ICI-related hearing loss were reversible, observed in patients with melanoma, accompanied by other irAEs, and associated with a high response rate to ICIs. With the expanded use of ICIs in the earlier treatment lines and adjuvant settings, the number of survivors with ICI-related hearing loss is expected to increase. Further research is needed to define the true prevalence of ICI-related hearing loss, optimal diagnosis, and management.

VOGT-KOYANAGI-HARADA DISEASE-LIKE UVEITIS IN A PATIENT WITH ADVANCED MELANOMA TREATED BY SEQUENTIAL ADMINISTRATION OF NIVOLUMAB AND DABRAFENIB/TRAMETINIB THERAPY

PURPOSE

To describe a case of bilateral Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada (VKH)-like uveitis during treatment with dabrafenib and trametinib and three months after discontinuation of nivolumab for malignant melanoma, and discuss the possible (synergistic) role(s) of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) inhibitors and immune checkpoint inhibitors in its pathophysiology.

METHODS

Retrospective case report with fluorescein angiography and optical coherence tomography.

RESULTS

A 55-year old patient with metastatic melanoma presented with a complaint of gradually worsening blurry vision in the right eye during treatment with dabrafenib and trametinib, three months after discontinuation of nivolumab. Based on the clinical examination, optical coherence tomography and fluorescein angiography findings, and a thorough laboratory work-up, he was diagnosed with a bilateral VKH-like uveitis without extraocular manifestations. The uveitis responded well to oral corticosteroids.

CONCLUSION

Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada-like uveitis is a rare adverse effect of MAPK inhibitors and immune checkpoint inhibitors. Similar pathogenetic mechanisms including a drug-induced autoimmunity targeted against benign and malignant melanocytes may underlie MAPK inhibitor-induced and immune checkpoint inhibitors-induced VKH-like uveitis. In our report, the patient developed a VKH-like uveitis during MAPK inhibition therapy, four months after discontinuation of nivolumab. It is difficult to delineate whether MAPK inhibition alone was responsible for this adverse effect, or whether, on the contrary, potentiation occurred as a result of immune modulation by previous treatment with an immune checkpoint inhibitor. Further cases are needed to further clarify this latter hypothesis.

Ototoxicity Review: A Growing Number of Non-Platinum-Based Chemo- and Immunotherapies

OBJECTIVE

To raise awareness of the growing list of non-platinum-based chemo- and immunotherapeutic agents that have been associated with ototoxicity and to introduce the possible mechanism of ototoxicity of these agents.

DATA SOURCES

PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science.

REVIEW METHODS

A systematic review was performed following the PRISMA guidelines (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses). PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science databases were searched for published reports of ototoxicity from non-platinum-based chemo- and immunotherapeutic agents in adult and pediatric patients. Therapies that utilized any platinum-based agent were excluded.

CONCLUSIONS

Ototoxicity from non-platinum-based chemo- and immunotherapies is an evolving problem. There were 54 reports-39 case reports and 15 cohort studies-documenting ototoxicity from 7 agents/combination therapies. Of these reports, 37 (69%) were published within the last 15 years (after 2005). No recovery of hearing was documented in 21 of 56 cases (38%). Pretreatment audiograms were uncommon (19/54 studies, 35%), despite documented ototoxic associations.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

There is a growing number of novel, ototoxic, non-platinum-based chemo- and immunotherapeutic agents with various potential mechanisms of action. Otolaryngologists will need to prioritize awareness of these agents. This growing list of agents, many of which have reversible effects, suggest a need for standardized ototoxicity monitor protocols so that appropriate and timely management options can be implemented.

Checkpoint Inhibitor-Associated Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada Disease Presenting 3 Months Following Discontinuation of Nivolumab

The use of checkpoint inhibitors has been associated with multiple ocular and orbital complications including Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease. In the current case, a 55-year-old man presented with visual changes 3 months following discontinuation of nivolumab for metastatic renal cell carcinoma. This is the second report of delayed presentation following discontinuation of a checkpoint inhibitor and the only case not associated with an alternative targeted therapy at the time of presentation. This article highlights a unique presentation of delayed checkpoint inhibitor-associated Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada and summarizes the reported cases. [Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging Retina 2023;54(3):183-187.].

Ocular adverse events associated with immune checkpoint inhibitors, a scoping review

INTRODUCTION

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have become an important part of the treatment of multiple cancers, especially for advanced melanoma and non-small cell lung cancer. Some tumors are capable of escaping immunosurveillance by stimulating checkpoints on T-cells. ICIs prevent activation of these checkpoints and thereby stimulate the immune system and indirectly the anti-tumor response. However, the use of ICIs is associated with various adverse events. Ocular side effects are rare but may have a major impact on the quality of life of the patient.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search of the medical databases Web of Science, Embase and PubMed was performed. Articles that provided a comprehensive description of a case report containing 1) cancer patient(s) treated with (a combination of) immune checkpoint inhibitors, and 2) assessed occurrence of ocular adverse events, were included. A total of 290 case reports were included.

RESULTS

Melanoma (n = 179; 61.7%) and lung cancer (n = 56; 19.3%) were the most frequent reported malignancies. The primary used ICIs were nivolumab (n = 123; 42.5%) and ipilimumab (n = 116; 40.0%). Uveitis was most the common adverse event (n = 134; 46.2%) and mainly related to melanoma. Neuro-ophthalmic disorders, including myasthenia gravis and cranial nerve disorders, were the second most common adverse events (n = 71; 24.5%), mainly related to lung cancer. Adverse events affecting the orbit and the cornea were reported in 33 (11.4%) and 30 cases (10.3%) respectively. Adverse events concerning the retina were reported in 26 cases (9.0%).

CONCLUSION

The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of all reported ocular adverse events related to the use of ICIs. The insights retrieved from this review might contribute to a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms of these ocular adverse events. Particularly, the difference between actual immune-related adverse events and paraneoplastic syndromes might be relevant. These findings might be of great value in establishing guidelines on how to manage ocular adverse events related to ICIs.

Outcome of Nivolumab-Induced Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada Disease-Like Uveitis in a Patient Managed without Intravenous Methylprednisolone Therapy

Background

In recent years, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) have been often used for several types of cancers. Immune-related adverse events (irAEs) are autoimmune responses caused by ICI. Among the different types of irAEs, uveitis is common in ophthalmology. Moreover, there are reports on Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada (VKH) disease-like uveitis. In most cases, VKH, as in the usual VKH, is managed with intravenous methylprednisolone therapy. Case Report. A 72-year-old man was diagnosed with gastric cancer, and he was treated with nivolumab, a type of ICI. After eight cycles of nivolumab therapy, he developed fulminant type 1 diabetes mellitus and diabetic ketoacidosis. Thus, the treatment was discontinued. Subsequently, the patient was referred to our department due to bilateral blurry vision. He had decreased visual acuity in both eyes, and slit lamp examination revealed the presence of bilateral anterior chamber cells and keratic precipitates. Fundus examination showed bilateral serous retinal detachment (SRD), wavy retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), and choroidal thickening. Cerebrospinal fluid examination revealed prominent pleocytosis. Thus, we initiated eye drop therapy and subtenon injection of triamcinolone acetonide on the right eye only. After 1 month, SRD and wavy RPE disappeared, and the patient's visual acuity improved. Further, both eyes had similar improvements in visual acuity and abnormal findings. Oral prednisolone was subsequently administered for hearing loss. However, intravenous methylprednisolone was not used, and ophthalmologic findings and visual acuity did not change before and after systemic steroid therapy. One year after disease onset, SRD and wavy RPE did not relapse.

Conclusion

Nivolumab-induced VKH disease-like uveitis can have good outcomes even in a patient managed without intravenous methylprednisolone therapy.

Biology of cancer; from cellular and molecular mechanisms to developmental processes and adaptation

Cancer research has been largely focused on the cellular and molecular levels of investigation. Recent data show that not only the cell but also the extracellular matrix plays a major role in the progression of malignancy. In this way, the cells and the extracellular matrix create a specific local microenvironment that supports malignant development. At the same time, cancer implies a systemic evolution which is closely related to developmental processes and adaptation. Consequently, there is currently a real gap between the local investigation of cancer at the microenvironmental level, and the pathophysiological approach to cancer as a systemic disease. In fact, the cells and the matrix are not only complementary structures but also interdependent components that act synergistically. Such relationships lead to cell-matrix integration, a supracellular form of biological organization that supports tissue development. The emergence of this supracellular level of organization, as a structure, leads to the emergence of the supracellular control of proliferation, as a supracellular function. In humans, proliferation is generally involved in developmental processes and adaptation. These processes suppose a specific configuration at the systemic level, which generates high-order guidance for local supracellular control of proliferation. In conclusion, the supracellular control of proliferation act as an interface between the downstream level of cell division and differentiation, and upstream level of developmental processes and adaptation. Understanding these processes and their disorders is useful not only to complete the big picture of malignancy as a systemic disease, but also to open new treatment perspectives in the form of etiopathogenic (supracellular or informational) therapies.

Poliosis Is Associated with Response to Checkpoint-Inhibitor Therapy: A Case Report of Two Patients with Multifocal Metastatic Melanoma

The advent of immune-checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) led to significant improvements in the treatment of patients with advanced melanoma and resulted in durable tumor responses in a considerable number of advanced melanoma patients. Next to the immune-mediated anti-neoplastic effects, ICIs may cause various immune-related adverse events (irAEs), often requiring early discontinuation of therapy. By contrast, cutaneous irAE rarely enforce treatment discontinuation but may represent simple and robust predictive markers for treatment response. The relevance of irAEs as clinical markers for an improved response to immunotherapy is still debated. We report here on two patients with multifocal metastatic melanoma who developed the rare event of generalized poliosis during combined immunotherapy with ipilimumab plus nivolumab, followed by a near-complete and durable response. Our observations suggest that poliosis may be a useful and simple clinical indicator of anti-tumor immunity, clinical response and favorable survival outcome in advanced melanoma patients treated with ICI.

Audiovestibular Toxicity Secondary to Immunotherapy: Case Series and Literature Review

Introduction

Audiovestibular toxicity secondary to immunotherapy has only rarely been reported in the literature. Herein, we examine our experience diagnosing and managing audiovestibular immune-related adverse events (irAEs) in patients undergoing immunotherapy.

Methods

Four patients who experienced irAEs were included. Demographics, immunotherapy regimen, diagnostic tests, treatment, and outcomes were recorded in a retrospective chart review.

Results

The cases of three patients with metastatic melanoma and one patient with metastatic renal cell carcinoma are presented. Hearing loss and tinnitus were the most common presenting symptoms. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) were implicated in three cases and T-cell therapy in one case. Two of three patients (67%) treated with steroids had substantial improvements in hearing.

Conclusions

Audiovestibular irAEs are a rare complication of immunotherapy. Suspicion for symptoms including hearing loss, tinnitus, and/or vertigo should prompt an expedient referral to the otolaryngologist for evaluation, as symptoms may improve with corticosteroid use. Hearing and/or vestibular deficits can have a substantial impact on the quality of life for affected patients, but rehabilitation options do exist.

Immune-Related Oral, Otologic, and Ocular Adverse Events

Emerging immunotherapeutic agents, including immune checkpoint inhibitors targeting cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 (CTLA-4), programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1), and programmed cell death protein ligand 1 (PD-L1), have revolutionized cancer treatment. The first immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) ipilimumab, an anti-CTLA-4, was approved in 2011. Since then, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved more than half a dozen immune checkpoint inhibitors to treat various malignancies. These agents are part of a broader class of chemotherapy agents termed immunotherapy, which selectively target different steps in the immune response cascade to upregulate the body's normal response to cancer. While the effects of traditional chemotherapy are well known, the toxicity profile of emerging immune therapies is not fully elucidated. They have been associated with atypical side effects labeled collectively as immune-related adverse events (irAEs).

Vitiligo-like leukoderma as an indicator of clinical response to immune checkpoint inhibitors in late-stage melanoma patients

PURPOSE

Although development of immune checkpoint inhibitors has revolutionized the treatment of metastatic melanoma, more than a half of treated patients experience disease progression during therapy. Cases of spontaneous vitiligo-like leukoderma have been described in melanoma patients and have been associated with a favorable outcome. This vitiligo-like leukoderma can also appear in melanoma patients undergoing immune therapies such as immune checkpoint inhibitors. However, no consensus exists about the relationship between vitiligo-like leukoderma onset and improved overall survival. Our study investigates the possible association between the onset of vitiligo-like leukoderma during immune checkpoint inhibitor treatment and a better prognosis.

METHODS

A non-concurrent cohort study was conducted by identifying retrospectively 280 patients who had inoperable or metastatic melanoma and had undergone immune therapy with checkpoint inhibitors in any line of treatment. Toxicities developed during therapy were evaluated.

RESULTS

Among the 280 study participants, 50% developed at least one type of toxicity, and vitiligo-like leukoderma was observed in 43 patients (15.4%). In the multivariate Cox model, a protective effect for mortality was observed for patients with vitiligo-like leukoderma development (HR : 0.23; 95% CI 0.11-0.44, p < 0.0001). In a sub-group analysis comprising only cutaneous melanoma in first line of treatment (N = 153), occurrence of vitiligo-like leukoderma was also an independent predictor factor for duration of clinical benefits measured by time to the next treatment (HR: 0.17; 95% CI 0.06-0.44).

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicate that onset of vitiligo-like leukoderma during melanoma treatment could be a marker of favorable outcome in patients treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Ocular adverse events associated with immune checkpoint inhibitors: a novel multidisciplinary management algorithm

Ocular immune-related adverse events (IrAEs) associated with use of checkpoint inhibitors (CPIs) in cancer therapeutics are relatively rare, occurring in approximately 1% of treated patients. Recognition and early intervention are essential because the degree of tissue damage may be disproportionate to the symptoms, and lack of appropriate treatment risks permanent loss of vision. International guidelines on managing ocular IrAEs provide limited advice only. Importantly, local interventions can be effective and may avoid the need for systemic corticosteroids, thereby permitting the continuation of CPIs. We present a single institution case series of eight affected patients managed by our multidisciplinary team. Consistent with previously published series and case reports, we identified anterior uveitis as the most common ocular IrAE associated with CPIs requiring intervention. Based on our experience, as well as published guidance, we generated a simple algorithm to assist clinicians efficiently manage patients developing ocular symptoms during treatment with CPIs. In addition, we make recommendations for optimising treatment of uveitis and address implications for ongoing CPI therapy.

Pharmacologically induced uveitis

Treatments of numerous systemic and local diseases of different etiologies may be accompanied by an unwanted side effect in the form of uveitis. We inform readers about medications that have the potential to cause uveitis and analyze the strength of association of these medications with uveitis. Subsequently, cessation of medication or appropriate treatment can be individualized for each patient for the purpose of preventing further damage to tissue structure and function. Being aware of these associations, physicians may readily identify medications that may cause uveitis and avoid expensive and unnecessary clinical and laboratory testing.