Decorating protein nanospheres with lactoferrin enhances oral COX-2 inhibitor/herbal therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma

Lactoferrin-Decorated Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles Prevent Renal Injury and Fibrosis

Renal fibrosis is a hallmark feature of chronic kidney diseases (CKDs). However, despite the increased prevalence of renal fibrosis, there is no approved antifibrotic drug for the management of renal fibrosis. Cerium oxide nanoparticles (CONPs) have been demonstrated to possess a number of properties including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and nephroprotective activity. As the kidneys are rich in lactoferrin (Lf) receptors, we synthesised the lactoferrin-CONP (Lf-CONP) system to be used for active targeting of the kidneys and provide antifibrotic effects of CONPs to the kidneys. We used the unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO)-induced renal fibrosis model and treated the animals with Lf-CONP to observe the antifibrotic effects of Lf-CONP. Lf-CONP was found to inhibit the progression of renal fibrosis in a superior manner when compared to CONPs alone.

Proteins and their functionalization for finding therapeutic avenues in cancer: Current status and future prospective

Despite the remarkable advancement in the health care sector, cancer remains the second most fatal disease globally. The existing conventional cancer treatments primarily include chemotherapy, which has been associated with little to severe side effects, and radiotherapy, which is usually expensive. To overcome these problems, target-specific nanocarriers have been explored for delivering chemo drugs. However, recent reports on using a few proteins having anticancer activity and further use of them as drug carriers have generated tremendous attention for furthering the research towards cancer therapy. Biomolecules, especially proteins, have emerged as suitable alternatives in cancer treatment due to multiple favourable properties including biocompatibility, biodegradability, and structural flexibility for easy surface functionalization. Several in vitro and in vivo studies have reported that various proteins derived from animal, plant, and bacterial species, demonstrated strong cytotoxic and antiproliferative properties against malignant cells in native and their different structural conformations. Moreover, surface tunable properties of these proteins help to bind a range of anticancer drugs and target ligands, thus making them efficient delivery agents in cancer therapy. Here, we discuss various proteins obtained from common exogenous sources and how they transform into effective anticancer agents. We also comprehensively discuss the tumor-killing mechanisms of different dietary proteins such as bovine α-lactalbumin, hen egg-white lysozyme, and their conjugates. We also articulate how protein nanostructures can be used as carriers for delivering cancer drugs and theranostics, and strategies to be adopted for improving their in vivo delivery and targeting. We further discuss the FDA-approved protein-based anticancer formulations along with those in different phases of clinical trials.

Gliadin Nanoparticles Containing Doxorubicin Hydrochloride: Characterization and Cytotoxicity

Doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX) is a well-known antitumor drug used as first line treatment for many types of malignancies. Despite its clinical relevance, the administration of the compound is negatively affected by dose-dependent off-target toxicity phenomena. Nanotechnology has helped to overcome these important limitations by improving the therapeutic index of the bioactive and promoting the translation of novel nanomedicines into clinical practice. Herein, nanoparticles made up of wheat gliadin and stabilized by polyoxyethylene (2) oleyl ether were investigated for the first time as carriers of DOX. The encapsulation of the compound did not significantly affect the physico-chemical features of the gliadin nanoparticles (GNPs), which evidenced a mean diameter of ~180 nm, a polydispersity index < 0.2 and a negative surface charge. The nanosystems demonstrated great stability regarding temperature (25−50 °C) and were able to retain high amounts of drug, allowing its prolonged and sustained release for up to a week. In vitro viability assay performed against breast cancer cells demonstrated that the nanoencapsulation of DOX modulated the cytotoxicity of the bioactive as a function of the incubation time with respect to the free form of the drug. The results demonstrate the potential use of GNPs as carriers of hydrophilic antitumor compounds.

Pitavastatin-loaded bilosomes for oral treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma: a repurposing approach

Albeit its established efficacy as an anti-hyperlipidemic agent, pitavastatin (PIT) has been shown to have other various therapeutic effects. One of these effects is the anti-cancer activity against hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). This effect has been evaluated in this study for the first time via its oral delivery loaded in bilosomes both in vitro in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell line; HepG2 and in vivo in an Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (EAC) model. Moreover, the impact of surface modification of bilosomes with lactoferrin (LF) as an active targeting ligand for HCC was investigated. Bilosomes were prepared by thin-film hydration and different molar phospholipid to bile salt ratios were used to optimize the bilosomal formulation. The molar phospholipid to bile salt ratio was adjusted to 4:1 at pH 7.4. LF-coated bilosomes possessed a particle size, PDI, entrapment efficiency, and zeta potential of 112.28 nm ± 6.35, 0.229 ± 0.06, 90.56% ± 3.22, and −7.86 mV ± 1.13, respectively. LF-coated bilosomes also increased permeation of PIT when tested on Caco-2 cells by 3.1-folds (compared to uncoated ones or free PIT solution). It also improved the cytotoxicity of HepG2 spheroids 44-folds more than PIT-free solution. RT-PCR analysis showed that LF-coated PIT-loaded bilosomes caused an improvement (2-fold increase) in the apoptotic potential of PIT mediated by caspase-3. In conclusion, the optimized LF-coated PIT-loaded bilosomes were cytotoxic to HCC with improved hepatocytes permeation and cellular uptake. Thus, the proposed formula could be a promising treatment for HCC.

Sequential Delivery of Novel Triple Drug Combination via Crosslinked Alginate/Lactoferrin Nanohybrids for Enhanced Breast Cancer Treatment

While breast cancer remains a global health concern, the elaboration of rationally designed drug combinations coupled with advanced biocompatible delivery systems offers new promising treatment venues. Herein, we repurposed rosuvastatin (RST) based on its selective tumor apoptotic effect and combined it with the antimetabolite pemetrexed (PMT) and the tumor-sensitizing polyphenol honokiol (HK). This synergistic three-drug combination was incorporated into protein polysaccharide nanohybrids fabricated by utilizing sodium alginate (ALG) and lactoferrin (LF), inspired by the stealth property of the former and the cancer cell targeting capability of the latter. ALG was conjugated to PMT and then coupled with LF which was conjugated to RST, forming core shell nanohybrids into which HK was physically loaded, followed by cross linking using genipin. The crosslinked HK-loaded PMT-ALG/LF-RST nanohybrids exhibited a fair drug loading of 7.86, 5.24 and 6.11% for RST, PMT and HK, respectively. It demonstrated an eight-fold decrease in the IC50 compared to the free drug combination, in addition to showing an enhanced cellular uptake by MCF-7 cells. The in vivo antitumor efficacy in a breast cancer-bearing mouse model confirmed the superiority of the triple cocktail-loaded nanohybrids. Conclusively, our rationally designed triple drug-loaded protein/polysaccharide nanohybrids offer a promising, biocompatible approach for an effective breast tumor suppression.

Development of Encapsulation Strategies and Composite Edible Films to Maintain Lactoferrin Bioactivity: A Review

Lactoferrin (LF) is a whey protein with various and valuable biological activities. For this reason, LF has been used as a supplement in formula milk and functional products. However, it must be considered that the properties of LF can be affected by technological treatments and gastrointestinal conditions. In this article, we have revised the literature published on the research done during the last decades on the development of various technologies, such as encapsulation or composite materials, to protect LF and avoid its degradation. Multiple compounds can be used to conduct this protective function, such as proteins, including those from milk, or polysaccharides, like alginate or chitosan. Furthermore, LF can be used as a component in complexes, nanoparticles, hydrogels and emulsions, to encapsulate, protect and deliver other bioactive compounds, such as essential oils or probiotics. Additionally, LF can be part of systems to deliver drugs or to apply certain therapies to target cells expressing LF receptors. These systems also allow improving the detection of gliomas and have also been used for treating some pathologies, such as different types of tumours. Finally, the application of LF in edible and active films can be effective against some contaminants and limit the increase of the natural microbiota present in meat, for example, becoming one of the most interesting research topics in food technology.

Recent advances in herbal combination nanomedicine for cancer: delivery technology and therapeutic outcomes

Introduction: The use of herbal compounds in cancer therapy has great potential to promote the efficacy of current cancer therapeutic strategies. Herbal compounds were successfully reported to enhance tumor cells sensitization to the action of chemo-, hormonal- and gene-therapeutic agents via different mechanisms. Herbal ingredients can affect different signaling pathways, reduce the toxic side effects or inhibit the efflux of anticancer drugs.Areas covered: This review will discuss the delivery of herbal compounds with other cancer treatments such as hormonal, small molecule inhibitors and inorganic hybrids to tumor cells. An overview of physicochemical properties of herbal components that require intelligent design of combo-nanomedicines for efficient co-delivery of those herbal-derived and other anticancer agents was discussed. Nanocarriers provide various benefits to overcome the shortcomings of the encapsulated herbal compounds including improved solubility, increased stability and enhanced tumor targeting. Different nanocarrier systems were the focus of this review.Expert opinion: Multifunctional nanocarrier systems encapsulating herbal and different anticancer drugs showed to be a wonderful approach in the treatment of cancer enabling the co-delivery of anticancer drugs with versatile modes of action in an accurate manner in an attempt to enhance the efficacy, benefit from the synergism between the drugs as well as to minimize the development of multi-drug resistance. The main challenge point is the early detection and management of any developed adverse effect.

Celecoxib repurposing in cancer therapy: molecular mechanisms and nanomedicine-based delivery technologies

While cancer remains a significant global health problem, advances in cancer biology, deep understanding of its underlaying mechanism and identification of specific molecular targets allowed the development of new therapeutic options. Drug repurposing poses several advantages as reduced cost and better safety compared with new compounds development. COX-2 inhibitors are one of the most promising drug classes for repurposing in cancer therapy. In this review, we provide an overview of the detailed mechanism and rationale of COX-2 inhibitors as anticancer agents and we highlight the most promising research efforts on nanotechnological approaches to enhance COX-2 inhibitors delivery with special focus on celecoxib as the most widely studied agent for chemoprevention or combined with chemotherapeutic and herbal drugs for combating various cancers.

Development of polyoxyethylene (2) oleyl ether-gliadin nanoparticles: Characterization and in vitro cytotoxicity

Natural polymers have been widely investigated as materials for the delivery of active compounds as a consequence of their biocompatibility, low-cost and the opportunity they furnish to obtain micro- and nanostructures. In this investigation, commercial wheat gliadin was used as raw material with the aim of obtaining a vegetal protein-based nanoformulation to be used for various applications. The influence of non-ionic and anionic surfactants on the physico-chemical properties of gliadin nanoparticles was evaluated in order to propose a suitable candidate able to stabilize the colloidal structure. The use of Super Refined polyoxyethylene (2) oleyl ether gave the best results, promoting the formation of spherical-shaped nanosystems with a narrow size distribution. The oleyl ether-based emulsifier prevented the destabilization of the colloidal systems when pH- and temperature-dependent stress was applied. A freeze-dried formulation was obtained when mannose was used as a cryoprotectant. Polyoxyethylene (2) oleyl ether-stabilized nanosystems were shown to retain and release both hydrophilic and lipophilic model compounds in a controlled manner. The cytotoxicity of the surfactant-free and polyoxyethylene (2) oleyl ether-stabilized gliadin based nanosystems was assessed on human cells, both normal and tumoural, in order to investigate the concentrations of particles that can be used during in vitro experiments. Polyoxyethylene (2) oleyl ether-stabilized gliadin-based nanosystems are promising carriers for the delivery of several active compounds.

A novel 'smart' PNIPAM-based copolymer for breast cancer targeted therapy: Synthesis, and characterization of dual pH/temperature-responsive lactoferrin-targeted PNIPAM-co-AA

Despite the active research towards introducing novel anticancer agents, the long-term sequelae and side effects of chemotherapy remain the major obstacle to achieving clinical success. Recent cancer research is now utilizing the medicinal chemistry toolbox to tailor novel 'smart' carrier systems that can reduce the major limitations of chemotherapy ranging from non-specificity and ubiquitous biodistribution to systemic toxicity. In this aspect, various stimuli-responsive polymers have gained considerable interest due to their intrinsic tumor targeting properties. Among these polymers, poly(N-isopropylacrylamide (PNIPAM) has been chemically modified to tune its thermoresponsivity or even copolymerized to endow new stimulus responsiveness for enhancing tumor targeting. Herein, we set our design rationale to impart additional active targeting entity to pH/temperature-responsive PNIPAM-based polymer for more efficient controlled payloads accumulation at the tumor through cellular internalization via synthesizing novel "super intelligent" lactoferrin conjugated PNIPAM-acrylic acid (LF-PNIPAM-co-AA) copolymer. The synthesized copolymer was physicochemically characterized and evaluated as a smart nanocarrier for targeting breast cancer. In this regard, Honokiol (HK) was utilized as a model anticancer drug and encapsulated in the nanoparticles to overcome its lipophilic nature and allow its parenteral administration, for achieving sustainable drug release with targeting action. Results showed that the developed HK-loaded LF-PNIPAM-co-AA nanohydrogels displayed high drug loading capacity reaching to 18.65 wt.% with excellent physical and serum stability. Moreover, the prepared HK-loaded nanohydrogels exhibited efficient in vitro and in vivo antitumor activities. In vivo, HK-loaded nanohydrogels demonstrated suppression of VEGF-1 and Ki-67 expression levels, besides inducing apoptosis through upregulating the expression level of active caspase-3 in breast cancer-bearing mice. Overall, the developed nanohydrogels (NGs) with pH and temperature responsivity provide a promising nanocarrier for anticancer treatment.

Fabrication of Imatinib Mesylate-Loaded Lactoferrin-Modified PEGylated Liquid Crystalline Nanoparticles for Mitochondrial-Dependent Apoptosis in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a major cause of concern as it has substantial morbidity associated with it. Previous reports have ascertained the antiproliferative activity of imatinib mesylate (IMS) against diverse types of carcinomas, but limited bioavailability has also been reported. The present study envisaged optimized IMS-loaded lactoferrin (LF)-modified PEGylated liquid crystalline nanoparticles (IMS-LF-LCNPs) for effective therapy of IMS to HCC via asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR) targeting. Results displayed that IMS-LF-LCNPs presented an optimum particle size of 120.40 ± 2.75 nm, a zeta potential of +12.5 ± 0.23 mV, and 73.94 ± 2.69% release. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy were used to confirm the surface architecture of IMS-LF-LCNPs. The results of cytotoxicity and 4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole revealed that IMS-LF-LCNPs had the highest growth inhibition and significant apoptotic effects. Pharmacokinetics and biodistribution studies showed that IMS-LF-LCNPs have superior pharmacokinetic performance and targeted delivery compared to IMS-LCNPs and plain IMS, which was attributed to the targeting action of LF that targets the ASGPR in hepatic cells. Next, our in vivo experiment established that the HCC environment existed due to suppression of BAX, cyt c, BAD, e-NOS, and caspase (3 and 9) genes, which thus owed upstream expression of Bcl-xl, iNOS, and Bcl-2 genes. The excellent therapeutic potential of IMS-LF-LCNPs began the significant stimulation of caspase-mediated apoptotic signals accountable for its anti-HCC prospect. ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance (serum) metabolomics revealed that IMS-LF-LCNPs are capable of regulating the disturbed levels of metabolites linked to HCC triggered through N-nitrosodiethylamine. Therefore, IMS-LF-LCNPs are a potentially effective formulation against HCC.

Lactoferrin coated or conjugated nanomaterials as an active targeting approach in nanomedicine

A successful drug delivery to a specific site relies on two essential factors including; efficient entrapment of the drug within the carrier and successful delivery of drug- loaded nanocarrier to the target site without opsonisation or drug release in the circulation before reaching the organ of interest. Lactoferrin (LF) is a glycoprotein belonging to the transferrin (TF) family which can bind to TF receptors (TFRs) and LF membrane internalization receptors (LFRs) highly expressed on the cell surface of both highly proliferating cancer cells and blood brain barrier (BBB), which in turn can facilitate its accessibility to the cell nucleus. This merit could be exploited to develop actively targeted drug delivery systems that can easily cross the BBB or internalize into tumor cells. In this review, the most recent advances of utilizing LF as an active targeting ligand for different types of nanocarriers including: inorganic nanoparticles, dendrimers, synthetic biodegradable polymers, lipid nanocarriers, natural polymers, and nanoemulstions will be highlighted. Collectively, LF seems to be a promising targeting ligand in the field of nanomedicine.

Lactoferrin, a multi-functional glycoprotein: Active therapeutic, drug nanocarrier & targeting ligand

Recent progress in protein-based nanomedicine, inspired by the success of Abraxane® albumin-paclitaxel nanoparticles, have resulted in novel therapeutics used for treatment of challenging diseases like cancer and viral infections. However, absence of specific drug targeting, poor pharmacokinetics, premature drug release, and off-target toxicity are still formidable challenges in the clinic. Therefore, alternative protein-based nanomedicines were developed to overcome those challenges. In this regard, lactoferrin (Lf), a glycoprotein of transferrin family, offers a promising biodegradable well tolerated material that could be exploited both as an active therapeutic and drug nanocarrier. This review highlights the major pharmacological actions of Lf including anti-cancer, antiviral, and immunomodulatory actions. Delivery technologies of Lf to improve its pries and enhance its efficacy were also reviewed. Moreover, different nano-engineering strategies used for fabrication of drug-loaded Lf nanocarriers were discussed. In addition, the use of Lf for functionalization of drug nanocarriers with emphasis on tumor-targeted drug delivery was illustrated. Besides its wide application in oncology nano-therapeutics, we discussed the recent advances of Lf-based nanocarriers as efficient platforms for delivery of anti-parkinsonian, anti-Alzheimer, anti-viral drugs, immunomodulatory and bone engineering applications.

Lactoferrin-dual drug nanoconjugate: Synergistic anti-tumor efficacy of docetaxel and the NF-κB inhibitor celastrol

Despite the progress in cancer nanotherapeutics, some obstacles still impede the success of nanocarriers and hinder their clinical translation. Low drug loading, premature drug release, off-target toxicity and multi-drug resistance are among the most difficult challenges. Lactoferrin (LF) has demonstrated a great tumor targeting capacity via its high binding affinity to low density lipoprotein (LDL) and transferrin (Tf) receptors overexpressed by various cancer cells. Herein, docetaxel (DTX) and celastrol (CST) could be successfully conjugated to LF backbone for synergistic breast cancer therapy. Most importantly, the conjugate self-assembled forming nanoparticles of 157.8 nm with elevated loading for both drugs (6.94 and 5.98% for DTX and CST, respectively) without risk of nanocarrier instability. Moreover, the nanoconjugate demonstrated enhanced in vivo anti-tumor efficacy in breast cancer-bearing mice, as reflected by a reduction in tumor volume, prolonged survival rate and significant suppression of NF-κB p65, TNF-α, COX-2 and Ki-67 expression levels compared to the group given free combined DTX/CST therapy and to positive control. This study demonstrated the proof-of-principle for dual drug coupling to LF as a versatile nanoplatform that could augment their synergistic anticancer efficacy.

Targeting cancer with lactoferrin nanoparticles: recent advances

Lactoferrin, an iron storage protein, is known for its microbicidal activity and its ability to modulate the immune system, mediated through specific interactions with receptors on cell surfaces for internalization. These activities confer a significant versatility to lactoferrin, presenting it as a targeting ligand to disease-bearing cells. Early efforts in developing targeted delivery systems have focused on nano- and microcomposites comprised of metal and polymeric materials. These can be targeted through conjugation or adsorption of lactoferrin to achieve recognition to receptor-expressing cells. More recently, efforts are underway to utilize lactoferrin itself as a medium in loading the therapeutic agent. The functional efficiency of drug-loaded lactoferrin nanoparticles has been evaluated in different disease conditions such as cancer, HIV, Parkinson's disease, etc. This review will present the details of composition and performance of various delivery systems designed and developed using lactoferrin as targeting agent for the treatment of cancer.

Metabolism and pharmacological activities of the natural health-benefiting compound diosmin

Diosmin is a famous natural flavonoid for treating chronic venous insufficiency and varicose veins.

Dual-Targeted Lactoferrin Shell-Oily Core Nanocapsules for Synergistic Targeted/Herbal Therapy of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Herein, both strategies of synergistic drug combination together with dual active tumor targeting were combined for effective therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Therefore, based on the tumor sensitizing action, the herbal quercetin (QRC) was co-delivered with the targeted therapeutic drug sorafenib (SFB), preformulated as phospholipid complex, via protein shell-oily core nanocapsules (NCs). Inspired by the targeting action of lactoferrin (LF) via binding to LF receptors overexpressed by HCC cells, LF shell was electrostatically deposited onto the drug-loaded oily core to elaborate LF shell-oily core NCs. For dual tumor targeting, lactobionic acid (LA) or glycyrrhetinic acid (GA) was individually coupled to LF shell for binding to asialoglycoprotein and GA receptors on liver cancer cells, respectively. Compared to LF and GA/LF NCs, the dual-targeted LA/LF-NCs showed higher internalization into HepG2 cells with 2-fold reduction in half-maximal inhibitory concentration compared to free combination therapy after 48 h. Moreover, dual-targeted LF-NCs showed powerful in vivo antitumor efficacy. It was revealed as significant downregulation of the mRNA expression levels of nuclear factor-kappa B and tumor necrosis factor α as well as suppression of Ki-67 protein expression level in diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-induced HCC mice (P < 0.05). Furthermore, dual-targeted LF-NCs attenuated the liver toxicity induced by DEN in animal models. Overall, this study proposes dual-targeted LF-NCs for combined delivery of SFB and QRC as a potential therapeutic HCC strategy.