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Shabatina TI, Gromova YA, Vernaya OI, Soloviev AV, Shabatin AV, Morosov YN, Astashova IV, Melnikov MY. Pharmaceutical Nanoparticles Formation and Their Physico-Chemical and Biomedical Properties. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2024; 17:587. [PMID: 38794157 PMCID: PMC11124199 DOI: 10.3390/ph17050587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2024] [Revised: 04/16/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
The use of medicinal substances in nanosized forms (nanoforms, nanoparticles) allows the therapeutic effectiveness of pharmaceutical preparations to be increased due to several factors: (1) the high specific surface area of nanomaterials, and (2) the high concentration of surface-active centers interacting with biological objects. In the case of drug nanoforms, even low concentrations of a bioactive substance can have a significant therapeutic effect on living organisms. These effects allow pharmacists to use lower doses of active components, consequently lowering the toxic side effects of pharmaceutical nanoform preparations. It is known that many drug substances that are currently in development are poorly soluble in water, so they have insufficient bioavailability. Converting them into nanoforms will increase their rate of dissolution, and the increased saturation solubility of drug nanocrystals also makes a significant contribution to their high therapeutic efficiency. Some physical and chemical methods can contribute to the formation of both pure drug nanoparticles and their ligand or of polymer-covered nanoforms, which are characterized by higher stability. This review describes the most commonly used methods for the preparation of nanoforms (nanoparticles) of different medicinal substances, paying close attention to modern supercritical and cryogenic technologies and the advantages and disadvantages of the described methods and techniques; moreover, the improvements in the physico-chemical and biomedical properties of the obtained medicinal nanoforms are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatyana I. Shabatina
- Department of Chemistry, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia; (Y.A.G.); (O.I.V.); (A.V.S.); (Y.N.M.); (M.Y.M.)
- Faculty of Fundamental Sciences, N.E. Bauman Moscow Technical State University, Moscow 105005, Russia
| | - Yana A. Gromova
- Department of Chemistry, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia; (Y.A.G.); (O.I.V.); (A.V.S.); (Y.N.M.); (M.Y.M.)
| | - Olga I. Vernaya
- Department of Chemistry, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia; (Y.A.G.); (O.I.V.); (A.V.S.); (Y.N.M.); (M.Y.M.)
- Faculty of Fundamental Sciences, N.E. Bauman Moscow Technical State University, Moscow 105005, Russia
| | - Andrei V. Soloviev
- Department of Chemistry, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia; (Y.A.G.); (O.I.V.); (A.V.S.); (Y.N.M.); (M.Y.M.)
| | - Andrei V. Shabatin
- Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry RAN, Moscow 119071, Russia;
| | - Yurii N. Morosov
- Department of Chemistry, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia; (Y.A.G.); (O.I.V.); (A.V.S.); (Y.N.M.); (M.Y.M.)
- Faculty of Fundamental Sciences, N.E. Bauman Moscow Technical State University, Moscow 105005, Russia
| | - Irina V. Astashova
- Department of Mechanic and Mathematics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia;
| | - Michail Y. Melnikov
- Department of Chemistry, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia; (Y.A.G.); (O.I.V.); (A.V.S.); (Y.N.M.); (M.Y.M.)
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2
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Dhayalan M, Wang W, Riyaz SUM, Dinesh RA, Shanmugam J, Irudayaraj SS, Stalin A, Giri J, Mallik S, Hu R. Advances in functional lipid nanoparticles: from drug delivery platforms to clinical applications. 3 Biotech 2024; 14:57. [PMID: 38298556 PMCID: PMC10825110 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-023-03901-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Since Doxil's first clinical approval in 1995, lipid nanoparticles have garnered great interest and shown exceptional therapeutic efficacy. It is clear from the licensure of two RNA treatments and the mRNA-COVID-19 vaccination that lipid nanoparticles have immense potential for delivering nucleic acids. The review begins with a list of lipid nanoparticle types, such as liposomes and solid lipid nanoparticles. Then it moves on to the earliest lipid nanoparticle forms, outlining how lipid is used in a variety of industries and how it is used as a versatile nanocarrier platform. Lipid nanoparticles must then be functionally modified. Various approaches have been proposed for the synthesis of lipid nanoparticles, such as High-Pressure Homogenization (HPH), microemulsion methods, solvent-based emulsification techniques, solvent injection, phase reversal, and membrane contractors. High-pressure homogenization is the most commonly used method. All of the methods listed above follow four basic steps, as depicted in the flowchart below. Out of these four steps, the process of dispersing lipids in an aqueous medium to produce liposomes is the most unpredictable step. A short outline of the characterization of lipid nanoparticles follows discussions of applications for the trapping and transporting of various small molecules. It highlights the use of rapamycin-coated lipid nanoparticles in glioblastoma and how lipid nanoparticles function as a conjugator in the delivery of anticancer-targeting nucleic acids. High biocompatibility, ease of production, scalability, non-toxicity, and tailored distribution are just a meager of the enticing allowances of using lipid nanoparticles as drug delivery vehicles. Due to the present constraints in drug delivery, more research is required to utterly realize the potential of lipid nanoparticles for possible clinical and therapeutic purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manikandan Dhayalan
- Department of Prosthodontics, Saveetha Dental College & Hospitals, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences (Saveetha University), Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600 077 India
- College of Public Health Sciences (CPHS), Chulalongkorn University, 254 Phyathai Road, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330 Thailand
| | - Wei Wang
- Beidahuang Industry Group General Hospital, Harbin, 150001 China
| | - S. U. Mohammed Riyaz
- Department of Prosthodontics, Saveetha Dental College & Hospitals, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences (Saveetha University), Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600 077 India
- PG & Research Department of Biotechnology, Islamiah College (Autonomous), Vaniyambadi, Tamil Nadu 635752 India
| | - Rakshi Anuja Dinesh
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072 Australia
| | - Jayashree Shanmugam
- Department of Biotechnology, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu India
| | | | - Antony Stalin
- Institute of Fundamental and Frontier Sciences, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 610054 China
| | - Jayant Giri
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Yeshwantrao Chavan College of Engineering, Nagpur, India
| | - Saurav Mallik
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T H Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA USA
| | - Ruifeng Hu
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA USA
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3
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Mehta M, Bui TA, Yang X, Aksoy Y, Goldys EM, Deng W. Lipid-Based Nanoparticles for Drug/Gene Delivery: An Overview of the Production Techniques and Difficulties Encountered in Their Industrial Development. ACS MATERIALS AU 2023; 3:600-619. [PMID: 38089666 PMCID: PMC10636777 DOI: 10.1021/acsmaterialsau.3c00032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2023] [Revised: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/13/2024]
Abstract
Over the past decade, the therapeutic potential of nanomaterials as novel drug delivery systems complementing conventional pharmacology has been widely acknowledged. Among these nanomaterials, lipid-based nanoparticles (LNPs) have shown remarkable pharmacological performance and promising therapeutic outcomes, thus gaining substantial interest in preclinical and clinical research. In this review, we introduce the main types of LNPs used in drug formulations such as liposomes, nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, and lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles, focusing on their main physicochemical properties and therapeutic potential. We discuss computational studies and modeling techniques to enhance the understanding of how LNPs interact with therapeutic cargo and to predict the potential effectiveness of such interactions in therapeutic applications. We also analyze the benefits and drawbacks of various LNP production techniques such as nanoprecipitation, emulsification, evaporation, thin film hydration, microfluidic-based methods, and an impingement jet mixer. Additionally, we discuss the major challenges associated with industrial development, including stability and sterilization, storage, regulatory compliance, reproducibility, and quality control. Overcoming these challenges and facilitating regulatory compliance represent the key steps toward LNP's successful commercialization and translation into clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meenu Mehta
- School
of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Information
Technology, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Thuy Anh Bui
- School
of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Information
Technology, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Xinpu Yang
- School
of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Information
Technology, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
| | - Yagiz Aksoy
- Cancer
Diagnosis and Pathology Group, Kolling Institute of Medical Research,
Royal North Shore Hospital, St Leonards NSW 2065 Australia - Sydney
Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney NSW 2006 Australia
| | - Ewa M. Goldys
- Graduate
School of Biomedical Engineering, ARC Centre of Excellence in Nanoscale
Biophotonics, Faculty of Engineering, UNSW Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Wei Deng
- School
of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Information
Technology, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
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4
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Lee DY, Amirthalingam S, Lee C, Rajendran AK, Ahn YH, Hwang NS. Strategies for targeted gene delivery using lipid nanoparticles and cell-derived nanovesicles. NANOSCALE ADVANCES 2023; 5:3834-3856. [PMID: 37496613 PMCID: PMC10368001 DOI: 10.1039/d3na00198a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023]
Abstract
Gene therapy is a promising approach for the treatment of many diseases. However, the effective delivery of the cargo without degradation in vivo is one of the major hurdles. With the advent of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) and cell-derived nanovesicles (CDNs), gene delivery holds a very promising future. The targeting of these nanosystems is a prerequisite for effective transfection with minimal side-effects. In this review, we highlight the emerging strategies utilized for the effective targeting of LNPs and CDNs, and we summarize the preparation methodologies for LNPs and CDNs. We have also highlighted the non-ligand targeting of LNPs toward certain organs based on their composition. It is highly expected that continuing the developments in the targeting approaches of LNPs and CDNs for the delivery system will further promote them in clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Yup Lee
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Institute of Chemical Processes, Seoul National University Seoul 08826 Republic of Korea
| | - Sivashanmugam Amirthalingam
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Institute of Chemical Processes, Seoul National University Seoul 08826 Republic of Korea
- Institute of Engineering Research, Seoul National University Seoul 08826 Republic of Korea
| | - Changyub Lee
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Institute of Chemical Processes, Seoul National University Seoul 08826 Republic of Korea
| | - Arun Kumar Rajendran
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Institute of Chemical Processes, Seoul National University Seoul 08826 Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Hyun Ahn
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Institute of Chemical Processes, Seoul National University Seoul 08826 Republic of Korea
- Bio-MAX/N-Bio Institute, Institute of Bio-Engineering, Seoul National University Seoul 08826 Republic of Korea
| | - Nathaniel S Hwang
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Institute of Chemical Processes, Seoul National University Seoul 08826 Republic of Korea
- Interdisciplinary Program in Bioengineering, Seoul National University Seoul 08826 Republic of Korea
- Bio-MAX/N-Bio Institute, Institute of Bio-Engineering, Seoul National University Seoul 08826 Republic of Korea
- Institute of Engineering Research, Seoul National University Seoul 08826 Republic of Korea
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5
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Pishnamazi M, Zabihi S, Jamshidian S, Lashkarbolooki M, Borousan F, Marjani A. Evaluation of Supercritical Technology for the Preparation of Nanomedicine: Etoricoxib Analysis. Chem Eng Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ceat.202000304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mahboubeh Pishnamazi
- Duy Tan University Institute of Research and Development 550000 Da Nang Vietnam
- Duy Tan University The Faculty of Pharmacy 550000 Da Nang Vietnam
| | - Samyar Zabihi
- Shazand-Arak Oil Refinery Company Department of Process Engineering Research and Development Department Arak Iran
| | - Sahar Jamshidian
- Shadram Company Environment, Research and Development Department Arak Iran
| | - Mostafa Lashkarbolooki
- Babol Noshirvani University of Technology School of Chemical Engineering Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) and Gas Processing Research Centre Babol Iran
| | - Fatemeh Borousan
- Yasouj University Department of Chemistry 75914-353 Yasouj Iran
- Fanavari Atiyeh Pouyandegan Exir Company Incubation Centre of Science and Technology Park 381314-3553 Arak Iran
- Fanavari Arena Exir Sabz Company Incubation Centre of Science and Technology Park 381314-3553 Arak Iran
| | - Azam Marjani
- Ton Duc Thang University Department for Management of Science and Technology Development Ho Chi Minh City Vietnam
- Ton Duc Thang University Faculty of Applied Sciences Ho Chi Minh City Vietnam
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6
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Fan Q, Li L, Xue H, Zhou H, Zhao L, Liu J, Mao J, Wu S, Zhang S, Wu C, Li X, Zhou X, Wang J. Precise Control Over Kinetics of Molecular Assembly: Production of Particles with Tunable Sizes and Crystalline Forms. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020; 59:15141-15146. [PMID: 32432368 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202003922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2020] [Revised: 05/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
It has been long-pursued but remains a challenge to precisely manipulate the molecular assembly process to obtain desired functional structures. Reported here is the control over the assembly of solute molecules, by a programmed recrystallization of solvent crystal grains, to form micro/nanoparticles with tunable sizes and crystalline forms. A quantitative correlation between the protocol of recrystallization temperature and the assembly kinetics results in precise control over the size of assembled particles, ranging from single-atom catalysts, pure drug nanoparticles, to sub-millimeter organic-semiconductor single crystals. The extensive regulation of the assembly rates leads to the unique and powerful capability of tuning the stacking of molecules, involving the formation of single crystals of notoriously crystallization-resistant molecules and amorphous structures of molecules with a very high propensity to crystallize, which endows it with wide-ranging applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingrui Fan
- Key Laboratory of Green Printing, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
| | - Linhai Li
- Key Laboratory of Green Printing, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
| | - Han Xue
- Key Laboratory of Green Printing, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
| | - Heng Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, Tsinghua University), Ministry of Education, Beijing, China.,School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Lishan Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Green Printing, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
| | - Jie Liu
- Key Laboratory of Green Printing, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
| | - Junqiang Mao
- Key Laboratory of Green Printing, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
| | - Shuwang Wu
- Key Laboratory of Green Printing, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
| | - Shizhong Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Green Printing, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China.,School of future technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Chenyang Wu
- Key Laboratory of Green Printing, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
| | - Xueming Li
- Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, Tsinghua University), Ministry of Education, Beijing, China.,School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Xin Zhou
- School of Physical Sciences & CAS Center for Excellence in Topological Quantum Computation, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.,Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou, China
| | - Jianjun Wang
- Key Laboratory of Green Printing, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China.,School of future technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
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7
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Fan Q, Li L, Xue H, Zhou H, Zhao L, Liu J, Mao J, Wu S, Zhang S, Wu C, Li X, Zhou X, Wang J. Precise Control Over Kinetics of Molecular Assembly: Production of Particles with Tunable Sizes and Crystalline Forms. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202003922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Qingrui Fan
- Key Laboratory of Green Printing Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science Institute of Chemistry Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100190 China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100190 China
| | - Linhai Li
- Key Laboratory of Green Printing Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science Institute of Chemistry Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100190 China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100190 China
| | - Han Xue
- Key Laboratory of Green Printing Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science Institute of Chemistry Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100190 China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100190 China
| | - Heng Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences Tsinghua University) Ministry of Education Beijing China
- School of Life Sciences Tsinghua University Beijing China
| | - Lishan Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Green Printing Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science Institute of Chemistry Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100190 China
| | - Jie Liu
- Key Laboratory of Green Printing Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science Institute of Chemistry Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100190 China
| | - Junqiang Mao
- Key Laboratory of Green Printing Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science Institute of Chemistry Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100190 China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100190 China
| | - Shuwang Wu
- Key Laboratory of Green Printing Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science Institute of Chemistry Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100190 China
| | - Shizhong Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Green Printing Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science Institute of Chemistry Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100190 China
- School of future technology University of Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100049 China
| | - Chenyang Wu
- Key Laboratory of Green Printing Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science Institute of Chemistry Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100190 China
| | - Xueming Li
- Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences Tsinghua University) Ministry of Education Beijing China
- School of Life Sciences Tsinghua University Beijing China
| | - Xin Zhou
- School of Physical Sciences & CAS Center for Excellence in Topological Quantum Computation University of Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100049 China
- Wenzhou Institute University of Chinese Academy of Sciences Wenzhou China
| | - Jianjun Wang
- Key Laboratory of Green Printing Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science Institute of Chemistry Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100190 China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100190 China
- School of future technology University of Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100049 China
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8
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Nanopharmaceutics: Part II-Production Scales and Clinically Compliant Production Methods. NANOMATERIALS 2020; 10:nano10030455. [PMID: 32143286 PMCID: PMC7153617 DOI: 10.3390/nano10030455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Revised: 02/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Due the implementation of nanotechnologies in the pharmaceutical industry over the last few decades, new type of cutting-edge formulations-nanopharmaceutics-have been proposed. These comprise pharmaceutical products at the nanoscale, developed from different types of materials with the purpose to, e.g., overcome solubility problems of poorly water-soluble drugs, the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles of known drugs but also of new biomolecules, to modify the release profile of loaded compounds, or to decrease the risk of toxicity by providing site-specific delivery reducing the systemic distribution and thus adverse side effects. To succeed with the development of a nanopharmaceutical formulation, it is first necessary to analyze the type of drug which is to be encapsulated, select the type matrix to load it (e.g., polymers, lipids, polysaccharides, proteins, metals), followed by the production procedure. Together these elements have to be compatible with the administration route. To be launched onto the market, the selected production method has to be scaled-up, and quality assurance implemented for the product to reach clinical trials, during which in vivo performance is evaluated. Regulatory issues concerning nanopharmaceutics still require expertise for harmonizing legislation and a clear understanding of clinically compliant production methods. The first part of this study addressing "Nanopharmaceutics: Part I-Clinical trials legislation and Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) of nanotherapeutics in the EU" has been published in Pharmaceutics. This second part complements the study with the discussion about the production scales and clinically compliant production methods of nanopharmaceutics.
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9
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Liu T, Yu X, Yin H, Möschwitzer JP. Advanced modification of drug nanocrystals by using novel fabrication and downstream approaches for tailor-made drug delivery. Drug Deliv 2020; 26:1092-1103. [PMID: 31735092 PMCID: PMC6882472 DOI: 10.1080/10717544.2019.1682721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug nanosuspensions/nanocrystals have been recognized as one useful and successful approach for drug delivery. Drug nanocrystals could be further decorated to possess extended functions (such as controlled release) and designed for special in vivo applications (such as drug tracking), which make best use of the advantages of drug nanocrystals. A lot of novel and advanced size reduction methods have been invented recently for special drug deliveries. In addition, some novel downstream processes have been combined with nanosuspensions, which have highly broadened its application areas (such as targeting) besides traditional routes. A large number of recent research publication regarding as nanocrystals focuses on above mentioned aspects, which have widely attracted attention. This review will focus on the recent development of nanocrystals and give an overview of regarding modification of nanocrystal by some new approaches for tailor-made drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Liu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Xinxin Yu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Haipeng Yin
- Department of Internal Medicine, Qingdao orthopaedic Hospital, Qingdao, China
| | - Jan P Möschwitzer
- Institute of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutics, Biopharmaceutics and NutriCosmetics, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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10
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Guo P, Huang J, Moses-Gardner A, Smith ER, Moses MA. Quantitative Analysis of Different Cell Entry Routes of Actively Targeted Nanomedicines Using Imaging Flow Cytometry. Cytometry A 2019; 95:843-853. [PMID: 31294926 DOI: 10.1002/cyto.a.23848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Revised: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 06/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
A rapid, high-throughput, and quantitative method for cell entry route characterization is still lacking in nanomedicine research. Here, we report the application of imaging flow cytometry for quantitatively analyzing cell entry routes of actively targeted nanomedicines. We first engineered ICAM1 antibody-directed fusogenic nanoliposomes (ICAM1-FusoNLPs) and ICAM1 antibody-directed endocytic nanolipogels (ICAM1-EndoNLGs) featuring highly similar surface properties but different cell entry routes: receptor-mediated membrane fusion and receptor-mediated endocytosis, respectively. By using imaging flow cytometry, we characterized their intracellular delivery into human breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells. We found that ICAM1-FusoNLPs mediated a 2.8-fold increased cell uptake of fluorescent payload, FITC-dextran, with a 2.4-fold increased intracellular distribution area in comparison with ICAM1-EndoNLGs. We also investigated the effects of incubation time and endocytic inhibitors on the cell entry routes of ICAM1-FusoNLP and ICAM1-EndoNLG. Our results indicate that receptor-mediated membrane fusion is a faster and more efficient cell entry route than receptor-mediated endocytosis, bringing with it a significant therapeutic benefit in a proof-of-principle nanomedicine-mediated siRNA transfection experiment. Our studies suggest that cell entry route may be an important design parameter to be considered in the development of next-generation nanomedicines. © 2019 International Society for Advancement of Cytometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Guo
- Vascular Biology Program, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, 02115.,Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School and Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, 02115
| | - Jing Huang
- Vascular Biology Program, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, 02115.,Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School and Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, 02115
| | - Alexander Moses-Gardner
- Vascular Biology Program, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, 02115.,Department of Neurosurgery, Harvard Medical School and Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, 02115
| | - Edward R Smith
- Vascular Biology Program, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, 02115.,Department of Neurosurgery, Harvard Medical School and Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, 02115
| | - Marsha A Moses
- Vascular Biology Program, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, 02115.,Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School and Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, 02115
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11
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Guo P, Huang J, Zhao Y, Martin CR, Zare RN, Moses MA. Nanomaterial Preparation by Extrusion through Nanoporous Membranes. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2018; 14:e1703493. [PMID: 29468837 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201703493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2017] [Revised: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Template synthesis represents an important class of nanofabrication methods. Herein, recent advances in nanomaterial preparation by extrusion through nanoporous membranes that preserve the template membrane without sacrificing it, which is termed as "non-sacrificing template synthesis," are reviewed. First, the types of nanoporous membranes used in nanoporous membrane extrusion applications are introduced. Next, four common nanoporous membrane extrusion strategies: vesicle extrusion, membrane emulsification, precipitation extrusion, and biological membrane extrusion, are examined. These methods have been utilized to prepare a wide range of nanomaterials, including liposomes, emulsions, nanoparticles, nanofibers, and nanotubes. The principle and historical context of each specific technology are discussed, presenting prominent examples and evaluating their positive and negative features. Finally, the current challenges and future opportunities of nanoporous membrane extrusion methods are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Guo
- Vascular Biology Program, Boston Children's Hospital, 300 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
- Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School and Boston Children's Hospital, 300 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Jing Huang
- Vascular Biology Program, Boston Children's Hospital, 300 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
- Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School and Boston Children's Hospital, 300 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Yaping Zhao
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai Jiaotong University, 800 Dongchuan road, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Charles R Martin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, 214 Leigh Hall, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Richard N Zare
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, 333 Campus Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Marsha A Moses
- Vascular Biology Program, Boston Children's Hospital, 300 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
- Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School and Boston Children's Hospital, 300 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
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Zolkepali NK, Abu bakar NF, Naim MN, Anuar N, Kamalul Aripin NF, Abu Bakar MR, Lenggoro IW, Kamiya H. Formation of fine and encapsulated mefenamic acid form I particles for dissolution improvement via electrospray method. PARTICULATE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/02726351.2016.1246496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nurul Karimah Zolkepali
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Noor Fitrah Abu bakar
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
- CoRe of Frontier Material and Industry Applications, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - M. Nazli Naim
- Food and Process Department, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Nornizar Anuar
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
| | | | - Mohd Rushdi Abu Bakar
- Kulliyyah of Pharmacy, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia
| | - I. Wuled Lenggoro
- Graduate School of Bio-Applications and Systems Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Koganei, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Koganei, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hidehiro Kamiya
- Graduate School of Bio-Applications and Systems Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Koganei, Tokyo, Japan
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13
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Abstract
Camptothecin (CPT) is a potent chemotherapeutic agent that shows a broad spectrum of anticancer activities. However, it is clinically inactive because of poor aqueous solubility, rapid aqueous hydrolysis, and unexpected side effects. Three strategies have extensively been adopted to improve its dissolution rate including reduction of drug particle size to a nanoscale, use of an amorphous state, and the formation of inclusion compounds. In our study, we combined these three strategies together by constructing CPT nanoparticles by creating an inclusion complex with β-cyclodextrin (BCD). This new CPT formulation showed a rod-like structure of nanoscaled size and with semiamorphous or amorphous CPT. These BCD-CPT nanoparticles showed improved dissolution rate, stability, dispersion, and cellular uptake. When tested on cancer cells, BCD-CPT nanoparticles showed a much higher anticancer activity (IC50=14-28 μmol/l) in comparison with free CPT (IC50>500 μmol/l) and CPT nanocrystals (IC50>200 μmol/l). In addition, BCD-CPT nanoparticles can be physically mixed with CPT nanocrystals, leading to CPT formulations with tailored drug-release profiles to achieve customized therapeutics and flexible treatments in clinics.
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14
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Radu IC, Hudita A, Zaharia C, Stanescu PO, Vasile E, Iovu H, Stan M, Ginghina O, Galateanu B, Costache M, Langguth P, Tsatsakis A, Velonia K, Negrei C. Poly(HydroxyButyrate-co-HydroxyValerate) (PHBHV) Nanocarriers for Silymarin Release as Adjuvant Therapy in Colo-rectal Cancer. Front Pharmacol 2017; 8:508. [PMID: 28824432 PMCID: PMC5539237 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2017.00508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2017] [Accepted: 07/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to address one of the major challenges of the actual era of nanomedicine namely, the bioavailability of poorly water soluble drugs such as Silymarin. We developed new, biodegradable, and biocompatible nanosized shuttles for Silymarin targeted delivery in colon-cancer cells. The design of these 100 nm sized carrier nanoparticles was based on natural polymers and their biological properties such as cellular uptake potential, cytotoxicity and 3D penetrability were tested using a colon cancer cell line (HT-29) as the in vitro culture model. Comparative scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) measurements demonstrated that the Silymarin loaded Poly(3-HydroxyButyrate-co-3-HydroxyValerate) (PHBHV) nanocarriers significantly decreased HT-29 cells viability after 6 and 24 h of treatment. Moreover, in vivo-like toxicity studies on multicellular tumor spheroids showed that the Silymarin loaded PHBHV nanocarriers are able to penetrate 3D micro tumors and significantly reduce their size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ionut-Cristian Radu
- Advanced Polymer Materials Group, University Politehnica of BucharestBucharest, Romania
| | - Ariana Hudita
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of BucharestBucharest, Romania
| | - Catalin Zaharia
- Advanced Polymer Materials Group, University Politehnica of BucharestBucharest, Romania
| | - Paul O Stanescu
- Advanced Polymer Materials Group, University Politehnica of BucharestBucharest, Romania
| | - Eugenia Vasile
- Department of Bioresources and Polymer Science, University Politehnica of BucharestBucharest, Romania
| | - Horia Iovu
- Advanced Polymer Materials Group, University Politehnica of BucharestBucharest, Romania
| | - Miriana Stan
- Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Carol Davila University of Medicine and PharmacyBucharest, Romania
| | - Octav Ginghina
- Department of Surgery, Sf. Ioan Emergency Clinical HospitalBucharest, Romania.,Department II, Faculty of Dental Medicine, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy BucharestBucharest, Romania
| | - Bianca Galateanu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of BucharestBucharest, Romania.,Research Institute of University of Bucharest, University of BucharestBucharest, Romania
| | - Marieta Costache
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of BucharestBucharest, Romania
| | - Peter Langguth
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmaceutics, Institute of Pharmacy, Johannes Gutenberg-UniversityMainz, Germany
| | - Aristidis Tsatsakis
- Department of Toxicology and Forensic Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of CreteHeraklion, Greece
| | - Kelly Velonia
- Department of Materials Science and Technology, University of CreteHeraklion, Greece
| | - Carolina Negrei
- Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Carol Davila University of Medicine and PharmacyBucharest, Romania
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15
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Preparation and anticancer activity evaluation of an amorphous drug nanocomposite by simple heat treatment. Anticancer Drugs 2017; 28:623-633. [DOI: 10.1097/cad.0000000000000503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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16
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Bystrianský L, Štofik M, Gryndler M. Soil-derived organic particles and their effects on the community of culturable microorganisms. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 2017. [PMID: 28631154 DOI: 10.1007/s12223-017-0537-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Soil microbial community interacts with a range of particulate material in the soil, consisting of both inorganic and organic compounds with different levels of water solubility. Though sparingly water-soluble and insoluble organic compounds in the soil may affect living organisms, they are difficult to introduce into microbiological media. Their biological activity (i.e., their effect on soil microorganisms) thus has been almost neglected in most of the cultivation assays. To fill this gap, we propose the use of fine organic particles prepared from soil organic matter that are introduced into a laboratory medium where microbial community is cultivated. To this purpose, submicrometer particles consisting of sparingly water-soluble or insoluble soil organic matter were obtained from humic horizons of two soils by precipitation of organics dissolved in tetrahydrofuran by addition of water. The particles could then be size fractionated by centrifugation, and coarse fraction obtained from humic horizon formed under spruce forest was tested for effects on complex microbial community developing under laboratory conditions. The results indicate that low concentration (20 mg/L) of the particles is efficient to affect the composition of the bacterial community revealed by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism. The work contributes to understanding the factors that determine the composition of soil microbial community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukáš Bystrianský
- Faculty of Science, Department of Biology, J. E. Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem, České mládeže 8, 40096, Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic
| | - Marcel Štofik
- Faculty of Science, Department of Biology, J. E. Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem, České mládeže 8, 40096, Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic
| | - Milan Gryndler
- Faculty of Science, Department of Biology, J. E. Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem, České mládeže 8, 40096, Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic. .,Laboratory of Fungal Biology, Institute of Microbiology ASCR v.v.i.,, Vídeňská 1083, 14220, Prague 4, Czech Republic.
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17
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Jog R, Burgess DJ. Pharmaceutical Amorphous Nanoparticles. J Pharm Sci 2017; 106:39-65. [DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2016.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2016] [Revised: 09/06/2016] [Accepted: 09/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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18
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El-Far YM, Zakaria MM, Gabr MM, El Gayar AM, El-Sherbiny IM, Eissa LA. A newly developed silymarin nanoformulation as a potential antidiabetic agent in experimental diabetes. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2016; 11:2581-602. [DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2016-0204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim: This study aimed to develop a new stable nanoformulation of silymarin (SM) with optimum enhanced oral bioavailability and to evaluate its effect as well as mechanism of action as a superior antidiabetic agent over native SM using streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Materials and methods: SM-loaded pluronic nanomicelles (SMnp) were prepared and fully characterized. Biochemical parameters were performed as well as histological, confocal and reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction studies on pancreatic target tissues. Results & conclusion: SMnp were found to improve significantly the antihyperglycemic, antioxidant and antihyperlipidemic properties as compared with native SM. In addition, SMnp was found to be a more efficient agent over SM in the management of diabetes and its associated complications due to its superior bioavailability in vivo, and the controlled release profile of SM. [Formula: see text]
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Affiliation(s)
- Yousra M El-Far
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mansoura University, 35516, Egypt
| | | | | | - Amal M El Gayar
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mansoura University, 35516, Egypt
| | - Ibrahim M El-Sherbiny
- Center for Materials Science, University of Science & Technology, Zewail City of Science & Technology, 6th October City, 12588 Giza, Egypt
| | - Laila A Eissa
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mansoura University, 35516, Egypt
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19
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Amstad E, Gopinadhan M, Holtze C, Osuji CO, Brenner MP, Spaepen F, Weitz DA. NANOPARTICLES. Production of amorphous nanoparticles by supersonic spray-drying with a microfluidic nebulator. Science 2016; 349:956-60. [PMID: 26315432 DOI: 10.1126/science.aac9582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Amorphous nanoparticles (a-NPs) have physicochemical properties distinctly different from those of the corresponding bulk crystals; for example, their solubility is much higher. However, many materials have a high propensity to crystallize and are difficult to formulate in an amorphous structure without stabilizers. We fabricated a microfluidic nebulator that can produce amorphous NPs from a wide range of materials, even including pure table salt (NaCl). By using supersonic air flow, the nebulator produces drops that are so small that they dry before crystal nuclei can form. The small size of the resulting spray-dried a-NPs limits the probability of crystal nucleation in any given particle during storage. The kinetic stability of the a-NPs—on the order of months—is advantageous for hydrophobic drug molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Amstad
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA. Institute of Materials, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Manesh Gopinadhan
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | | | - Chinedum O Osuji
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Michael P Brenner
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Frans Spaepen
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - David A Weitz
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA. Department of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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Paliwal R, Babu RJ, Palakurthi S. Nanomedicine scale-up technologies: feasibilities and challenges. AAPS PharmSciTech 2014; 15:1527-34. [PMID: 25047256 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-014-0177-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2014] [Accepted: 06/27/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Nanomedicine refers to biomedical and pharmaceutical applications of nanosized cargos of drugs/vaccine/DNA therapeutics including nanoparticles, nanoclusters, and nanospheres. Such particles have unique characteristics related to their size, surface, drug loading, and targeting potential. They are widely used to combat disease by controlled delivery of bioactive(s) or for diagnosis of life-threatening problems in their very early stage. The bioactive agent can be combined with a diagnostic agent in a nanodevice for theragnostic applications. However, the formulation scientist faces numerous challenges related to their development, scale-up feasibilities, regulatory aspects, and commercialization. This article reviews recent progress in the method of development of nanoparticles with a focus on polymeric and lipid nanoparticles, their scale-up techniques, and challenges in their commercialization.
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21
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PEG-PLGA copolymers: their structure and structure-influenced drug delivery applications. J Control Release 2014; 183:77-86. [PMID: 24675377 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 224] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2014] [Revised: 03/13/2014] [Accepted: 03/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
In the paper, we begin by describing polyethylene glycol-poly lactic acid-co-glycolic acid (PEG-PLGA) which was chosen as a typical model copolymer for the construction of nano-sized drug delivery systems and also the types of PEG-PLGA copolymers that were eluted. Following this we examine the structure-influenced drug delivery applications including nanoparticles, micelles and hydrogels. After that, the preparation methods for nano-sized delivery systems are presented. In addition, the drug loading mode of PEG-PLGA micelles is divided into three aspects. Finally, the drug release profiles of PEG-PLGA micelles, both in terms of their in vitro and in vivo characteristics, are represented. PEG-PLGA copolymers are very suitable for the construction of micelles as carriers for insoluble drugs. This article reviews the structure and the different structure-influenced applications of PEG-PLGA copolymers, concentrating on the application of PEG-PLGA micelles.
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