1
|
Pérez-Isidoro R, Valdez-Lara AG, Díaz-Salazar AJ, Hoeppener S, Guerrero-Sánchez C, Quintana-Owen P, Ruiz-Suárez JC, Schubert US, Ayora-Talavera G, De Jesús-Téllez MA, Saldívar-Guerra E. Biophysical investigation of liposome systems decorated with bioconjugated copolymers in the presence of amantadine. J Mater Chem B 2024; 12:5823-5837. [PMID: 38757473 DOI: 10.1039/d4tb00171k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
Liposome-based technologies derived from lipids and polymers (e.g., PEGylated liposomes) have been recognized because of their applications in nanomedicine. However, since such systems represent myriad challenges and may promote immune responses, investigation of new biomaterials is mandatory. Here, we report on a biophysical investigation of liposomes decorated with bioconjugated copolymers in the presence (or absence) of amantadine (an antiviral medication). First, copolymers of poly(N,N-dimethylacrylamide-co-fluoresceinacrylate-co-acrylic acid-N-succinimide ester)-block-poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PDMA-b-PNIPAM) containing a fluorescence label were biofunctionalized with short peptides that resemble the sequence of the loops 220 and 130 of the binding receptor of the hemagglutinin (HA) protein of the influenza A virus. Then, the bioconjugated copolymers were self-assembled along with liposomes composed of 1,2 dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, sphingomyelin, and cholesterol (MSC). These biohybrid systems, with and without amantadine, were systematically characterized using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), dynamic light scattering (DLS), and cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryoTEM). Finally, the systems were tested in an in vitro study to evaluate cytotoxicity and direct immunofluorescence in Madin Darbin Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells. The biohybrid systems displayed long-term stability, thermo-responsiveness, hydrophilic-hydrophobic features, and fluorescence properties and were presumable endowed with cell targeting properties intrinsically integrated into the amino acid sequences of the utilized peptides, which indeed turn them into promising nanodevices for biomedical applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rosendo Pérez-Isidoro
- Centro de Investigación en Química Aplicada (CIQA), Enrique Reyna, 140, 25294 Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico.
| | | | - Alma Jessica Díaz-Salazar
- Laboratorio de Bio-fisicoquímica, Departamento de Fisicoquímica, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510 México City, Mexico
| | - Stephanie Hoeppener
- Laboratory of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Humboldtstrasse 10, 97743 Jena, Germany.
- Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM), Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Carlos Guerrero-Sánchez
- Laboratory of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Humboldtstrasse 10, 97743 Jena, Germany.
- Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM), Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Patricia Quintana-Owen
- Departamento de Física Aplicada, CINVESTAV-IPN, Unidad Mérida, A.P. 73, Cordemex, 97310 Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | | | - Ulrich S Schubert
- Laboratory of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Humboldtstrasse 10, 97743 Jena, Germany.
- Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM), Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Philosophenweg 7, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Guadalupe Ayora-Talavera
- Laboratory of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Humboldtstrasse 10, 97743 Jena, Germany.
| | | | - Enrique Saldívar-Guerra
- Centro de Investigación en Química Aplicada (CIQA), Enrique Reyna, 140, 25294 Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Singh V, Eljaaly K, Md S, Alhakamy NA, Kesharwani P. Triblock copolymeric drug delivery as an emerging nanocarrier for treatment of infectious diseases. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2022.103691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
3
|
Harnessing Intronic microRNA Structures to Improve Tolerance and Expression of shRNAs in Animal Cells. Methods Protoc 2022; 5:mps5010018. [PMID: 35200534 PMCID: PMC8879667 DOI: 10.3390/mps5010018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Exogenous RNA polymerase III (pol III) promoters are commonly used to express short hairpin RNA (shRNA). Previous studies have indicated that expression of shRNAs using standard pol III promoters can cause toxicity in vivo due to saturation of the native miRNA pathway. A potential way of mitigating shRNA-associated toxicity is by utilising native miRNA processing enzymes to attain tolerable shRNA expression levels. Here, we examined parallel processing of exogenous shRNAs by harnessing the natural miRNA processing enzymes and positioning a shRNA adjacent to microRNA107 (miR107), located in the intron 5 of the Pantothenate Kinase 1 (PANK1) gene. We developed a vector encoding the PANK1 intron containing miR107 and examined the expression of a single shRNA or multiple shRNAs. Using qRT-PCR analysis and luciferase assay-based knockdown assay, we confirmed that miR30-structured shRNAs have resulted in the highest expression and subsequent transcript knockdown. Next, we injected Hamburger and Hamilton stage 14–15 chicken embryos with a vector encoding multiple shRNAs and confirmed that the parallel processing was not toxic. Taken together, this data provides a novel strategy to harness the native miRNA processing pathways for shRNA expression. This enables new opportunities for RNAi based applications in animal species such as chickens.
Collapse
|
4
|
In Vitro Inhibition of Influenza Virus Using CRISPR/Cas13a in Chicken Cells. Methods Protoc 2021; 4:mps4020040. [PMID: 34201194 PMCID: PMC8293360 DOI: 10.3390/mps4020040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 06/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Advances in the field of CRISPR/Cas systems are expanding our ability to modulate cellular genomes and transcriptomes precisely and efficiently. Here, we assessed the Cas13a-mediated targeted disruption of RNA in chicken fibroblast DF1 cells. First, we developed a Tol2 transposon vector carrying the Cas13a-msGFP-NLS (pT-Cas13a) transgene, followed by a stable insertion of the Cas13a transgene into the genome of DF1 cells to generate stable DF1-Cas13a cells. To assess the Cas13a-mediated functional knockdown, DF1-Cas13a cells were transfected with the combination of a plasmid encoding DsRed coding sequence (pDsRed) and DsRed-specific crRNA (crRNA-DsRed) or non-specific crRNA (crRNA-NS). Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) and a microscopy analysis showed reduced levels of DsRed expression in cells transfected with crRNA-DsRed but not in crRNA-NS, confirming a sequence-specific Cas13a mediated mRNA knockdown. Next, we designed four crRNAs (crRNA-IAV) against the PB1, NP and M genes of influenza A virus (IAV) and cloned in tandem to express from a single vector. DF1-Cas13a cells were transfected with plasmids encoding the crRNA-IAV or crRNA-NS, followed by infection with WSN or PR8 IAV. DF1 cells transfected with crRNA-IAV showed reduced levels of viral titers compared to cells transfected with crRNA-NS. These results demonstrate the potential of Cas13a as an antiviral strategy against highly pathogenic strains of IAV in chickens.
Collapse
|
5
|
Koda Y, Takahashi D, Sasaki Y, Akiyoshi K. Amphiphilic Poly[poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate]s with OH Groups in the PEG Side Chains for Controlling Solution/Rheological Properties and toward Bioapplication. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2019; 2:1920-1930. [DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.8b00836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuta Koda
- Department of Polymer Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University Katsura, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto 615-8510, Japan
- ERATO Akiyoshi Bio-Nanotransporter Project, Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Katsura Int’tech center, Katsura, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto 615-8530, Japan
| | - Daiki Takahashi
- Department of Polymer Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University Katsura, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto 615-8510, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Sasaki
- Department of Polymer Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University Katsura, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto 615-8510, Japan
| | - Kazunari Akiyoshi
- Department of Polymer Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University Katsura, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto 615-8510, Japan
- ERATO Akiyoshi Bio-Nanotransporter Project, Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Katsura Int’tech center, Katsura, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto 615-8530, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Polymers in the Delivery of siRNA for the Treatment of Virus Infections. Top Curr Chem (Cham) 2017; 375:38. [PMID: 28324594 PMCID: PMC7100576 DOI: 10.1007/s41061-017-0127-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2016] [Accepted: 02/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Viral diseases remain a major cause of death worldwide. Despite advances in vaccine and antiviral drug technology, each year over three million people die from a range of viral infections. Predominant viruses include human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis viruses, and gastrointestinal and respiratory viruses. Now more than ever, robust, easily mobilised and cost-effective antiviral strategies are needed to combat both known and emerging disease threats. RNA interference and small interfering (si)RNAs were initially hailed as a “magic bullet”, due to their ability to inhibit the synthesis of any protein via the degradation of its complementary messenger RNA sequence. Of particular interest was the potential for attenuating viral mRNAs contributing to the pathogenesis of disease that were not able to be targeted by vaccines or antiviral drugs. However, it was soon discovered that delivery of active siRNA molecules to the infection site in vivo was considerably more difficult than anticipated, due to a number of physiological barriers in the body. This spurred a new wave of investigation into nucleic acid delivery vehicles which could facilitate safe, targeted and effective administration of the siRNA as therapy. Amongst these, cationic polymer delivery vehicles have emerged as a promising candidate as they are low-cost and easy to produce at an industrial scale, and bind to the siRNA by non-specific electrostatic interactions. These nanoparticles (NPs) can be functionally designed to target the infection site, improve uptake in infected cells, release the siRNA inside the endosome and facilitate delivery into the cell cytoplasm. They may also have the added benefit of acting as adjuvants. This chapter provides a background around problems associated with the translation of siRNA as antiviral treatments, reviews the progress made in nucleic acid therapeutics and discusses current methods and progress in overcoming these challenges. It also addresses the importance of combining physicochemical characterisation of the NPs with in vitro and in vivo data.
Collapse
|
7
|
Bradford BJ, Cooper CA, Tizard ML, Doran TJ, Hinton TM. RNA interference-based technology: what role in animal agriculture? ANIMAL PRODUCTION SCIENCE 2017. [DOI: 10.1071/an15437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Animal agriculture faces a broad array of challenges, ranging from disease threats to adverse environmental conditions, while attempting to increase productivity using fewer resources. RNA interference (RNAi) is a biological phenomenon with the potential to provide novel solutions to some of these challenges. Discovered just 20 years ago, the mechanisms underlying RNAi are now well described in plants and animals. Intracellular double-stranded RNA triggers a conserved response that leads to cleavage and degradation of complementary mRNA strands, thereby preventing production of the corresponding protein product. RNAi can be naturally induced by expression of endogenous microRNA, which are critical in the regulation of protein synthesis, providing a mechanism for rapid adaptation of physiological function. This endogenous pathway can be co-opted for targeted RNAi either through delivery of exogenous small interfering RNA (siRNA) into target cells or by transgenic expression of short hairpin RNA (shRNA). Potentially valuable RNAi targets for livestock include endogenous genes such as developmental regulators, transcripts involved in adaptations to new physiological states, immune response mediators, and also exogenous genes such as those encoded by viruses. RNAi approaches have shown promise in cell culture and rodent models as well as some livestock studies, but technical and market barriers still need to be addressed before commercial applications of RNAi in animal agriculture can be realised. Key challenges for exogenous delivery of siRNA include appropriate formulation for physical delivery, internal transport and eventual cellular uptake of the siRNA; additionally, rigorous safety and residue studies in target species will be necessary for siRNA delivery nanoparticles currently under evaluation. However, genomic incorporation of shRNA can overcome these issues, but optimal promoters to drive shRNA expression are needed, and genetic engineering may attract more resistance from consumers than the use of exogenous siRNA. Despite these hurdles, the convergence of greater understanding of RNAi mechanisms, detailed descriptions of regulatory processes in animal development and disease, and breakthroughs in synthetic chemistry and genome engineering has created exciting possibilities for using RNAi to enhance the sustainability of animal agriculture.
Collapse
|
8
|
Bivalkar-Mehla S, Mehla R, Chauhan A. Chimeric peptide-mediated siRNA transduction to inhibit HIV-1 infection. J Drug Target 2016; 25:307-319. [PMID: 27800697 DOI: 10.1080/1061186x.2016.1245311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Persistent human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) infection provokes immune activation and depletes CD4+ lymphocytes, leading to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Uninterrupted administration of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) in HIV-infected patients suppresses viral replication to below the detectable level and partially restores the immune system. However, cART-unresponsive residual HIV-1 infection and elusive transcriptionally silent but reactivatable viral reservoirs maintain a permanent viral DNA blue print. The virus rebounds within a few weeks after interruption of suppressive therapy. Adjunct gene therapy to control viral replication by ribonucleic acid interference (RNAi) is a post-transcriptional gene silencing strategy that could suppress residual HIV-1 burden and overcome viral resistance. Small interfering ribonucleic acids (siRNAs) are efficient transcriptional inhibitors, but need delivery systems to reach inside target cells. We investigated the potential of chimeric peptide (FP-PTD) to deliver specific siRNAs to HIV-1-susceptible and permissive cells. Chimeric FP-PTD peptide was designed with an RNA binding domain (PTD) to bind siRNA and a cell fusion peptide domain (FP) to enter cells. FP-PTD-siRNA complex entered and inhibited HIV-1 replication in susceptible cells, and could be a candidate for in vivo testing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shalmali Bivalkar-Mehla
- a Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology , University of South Carolina School of Medicine , Columbia , SC , USA
| | - Rajeev Mehla
- a Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology , University of South Carolina School of Medicine , Columbia , SC , USA
| | - Ashok Chauhan
- a Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology , University of South Carolina School of Medicine , Columbia , SC , USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Dearnley M, Reynolds NP, Cass P, Wei X, Shi S, Mohammed AA, Le T, Gunatillake P, Tizard ML, Thang SH, Hinton TM. Comparing Gene Silencing and Physiochemical Properties in siRNA Bound Cationic Star-Polymer Complexes. Biomacromolecules 2016; 17:3532-3546. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.6b01029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Megan Dearnley
- CSIRO-Health
and Biosecurity Business Unit, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, 5 Portarlington Road, Geelong, Vic 3220, Australia
| | - Nicholas P. Reynolds
- ARC
Training Centre for Biodevices, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Vic 3122, Australia
| | - Peter Cass
- CSIRO-Manufacturing
Business Unit, Bayview Avenue, Clayton, Vic 3168, Australia
| | - Xiaohu Wei
- CSIRO-Manufacturing
Business Unit, Bayview Avenue, Clayton, Vic 3168, Australia
- College
of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Shuning Shi
- CSIRO-Health
and Biosecurity Business Unit, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, 5 Portarlington Road, Geelong, Vic 3220, Australia
| | - A. Aalam Mohammed
- CSIRO-Health
and Biosecurity Business Unit, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, 5 Portarlington Road, Geelong, Vic 3220, Australia
| | - Tam Le
- CSIRO-Manufacturing
Business Unit, Bayview Avenue, Clayton, Vic 3168, Australia
| | | | - Mark L. Tizard
- CSIRO-Health
and Biosecurity Business Unit, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, 5 Portarlington Road, Geelong, Vic 3220, Australia
| | - San H. Thang
- CSIRO-Manufacturing
Business Unit, Bayview Avenue, Clayton, Vic 3168, Australia
| | - Tracey M. Hinton
- CSIRO-Health
and Biosecurity Business Unit, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, 5 Portarlington Road, Geelong, Vic 3220, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Fairbanks BD, Gunatillake PA, Meagher L. Biomedical applications of polymers derived by reversible addition - fragmentation chain-transfer (RAFT). Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2015; 91:141-52. [PMID: 26050529 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2015.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2015] [Revised: 05/25/2015] [Accepted: 05/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
RAFT- mediated polymerization, providing control over polymer length and architecture as well as facilitating post polymerization modification of end groups, has been applied to virtually every facet of biomedical materials research. RAFT polymers have seen particularly extensive use in drug delivery research. Facile generation of functional and telechelic polymers permits straightforward conjugation to many therapeutic compounds while synthesis of amphiphilic block copolymers via RAFT allows for the generation of self-assembled structures capable of carrying therapeutic payloads. With the large and growing body of literature employing RAFT polymers as drug delivery aids and vehicles, concern over the potential toxicity of RAFT derived polymers has been raised. While literature exploring this complication is relatively limited, the emerging consensus may be summed up in three parts: toxicity of polymers generated with dithiobenzoate RAFT agents is observed at high concentrations but not with polymers generated with trithiocarbonate RAFT agents; even for polymers generated with dithiobenzoate RAFT agents, most reported applications call for concentrations well below the toxicity threshold; and RAFT end-groups may be easily removed via any of a variety of techniques that leave the polymer with no intrinsic toxicity attributable to the mechanism of polymerization. The low toxicity of RAFT-derived polymers and the ability to remove end groups via straightforward and scalable processes make RAFT technology a valuable tool for practically any application in which a polymer of defined molecular weight and architecture is desired.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin D Fairbanks
- CSIRO Manufacturing Flagship, Ian Wark Laboratories, Clayton, VIC 3168, Australia; Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA 80309-0596.
| | | | - Laurence Meagher
- CSIRO Manufacturing Flagship, Ian Wark Laboratories, Clayton, VIC 3168, Australia; Monash Institute for Medical Engineering and Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Monash University, PO Box 69M, VIC, 3800, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Pan R, Xu W, Yuan F, Chu D, Ding Y, Chen B, Jafari M, Yuan Y, Chen P. A novel peptide for efficient siRNA delivery in vitro and therapeutics in vivo. Acta Biomater 2015; 21:74-84. [PMID: 25861950 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2015.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2014] [Revised: 03/18/2015] [Accepted: 04/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Small interfering RNA (siRNA) shows great therapeutic potential due to its ability to regulate gene expression in a highly selective manner. However, its application has been limited by ineffective cellular uptake of siRNAs. To achieve successful gene-silencing efficiency, a safe and effective delivery vector is generally required. In this study, we designed a series of amphipathic peptides that comprised a variant of a nuclear localization sequence, 0-6 histidine residues and an optional stearic acid group. Among these candidates, STR-HK exhibited good characteristics as a safe and efficient siRNA delivery vector, facilitating efficient siRNA delivery to mammalian cells without causing cytotoxicity. Moreover, the intratumoral injection of STR-HK/siRNA complexes achieved high anti-tumor activity through the downregulation of the Bcl-2 protein in mice, with an inhibition rate of 62.8%. Our data demonstrate that STR-HK is a highly promising siRNA delivery vector for therapeutic applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ran Pan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada; Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Wen Xu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada; Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Feng Yuan
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai 3rd People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 201999, China
| | - Dafeng Chu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada; Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Yong Ding
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada; Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Baoling Chen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada; Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Mousa Jafari
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada; Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Yongfang Yuan
- Department of Pharmacy, Shanghai 3rd People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 201999, China
| | - P Chen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada; Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|