Hind limb kinematics during therapeutic exercises in dogs with osteoarthritis of the hip joints

Current evidence for non-pharmaceutical, non-surgical treatments of canine osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis is a progressive degenerative disease process that affects a significant proportion of the canine population, impacting these animals' quality of life. Currently, there is no cure and treatment consists of managing the clinical signs of pain and reduced mobility. There are many treatments for canine osteoarthritis and in this review we discuss the evidence base behind non-pharmaceutical, non-surgical treatments of this disease. These treatments include weight management, nutraceuticals, acupuncture, physiotherapies such as therapeutic exercise, hydrotherapy as well as other therapeutic modalities including photobiomodulation therapy, electromagnetic field therapy and others.

Ground Reaction Forces and Center of Pressure within the Paws When Stepping over Obstacles in Dogs

Simple Summary

Physical therapy and rehabilitation are emerging in veterinary medicine, and more research is needed to understand the effect of various exercises on kinematics and kinetics in animals. This will allow the animal physiotherapist to best utilize these exercises as a therapeutic and even diagnostic tool. Walking over obstacles is a typical canine physiotherapy exercise; however, no studies investigating the kinetics have been conducted. The present study showed significant changes in ground reaction forces and center of pressure in dogs walking over obstacles compared to normal walking. This can reflect a challenge that the animals have to overcome in order to perform this exercise. The data can be used for further studies in diseased animals or in the future as a diagnostic tool.

Abstract

Walking over obstacles is a widely used physiotherapy exercise in dogs. Current research is limited to the effect of this exercise in kinematics and muscle activation in dogs. The present study assessed the influence of walking over obstacles on the ground reaction forces (GRFs) and center of pressure (COP) in dogs. Data of dogs walking over one and two obstacles over a pressure platform were retrospectively analyzed and compared to normal walking. Walking over one obstacle did not affect the GRFs and COP of the forelimbs; however, significant changes were observed for the hindlimbs, especially the leading hindlimb. Walking over two obstacles caused significant changes to only one value at the forelimbs, whereas multiple significant changes in the GRFs and COP values were observed at the hindlimbs. Walking over obstacles seems to be challenging even for healthy adult dogs. Further studies are needed to investigate how different heights of obstacles and distances between them can further challenge the animals. The combination of kinetics and kinematics during walking over obstacles may be used in future as a diagnostic tool in geriatric and neurological patients in order to assess their proprioception awareness or to assess the improvement after an intervention, e.g., physiotherapy treatment.

Characterization of weight-bearing compensation in dogs with bilateral hip osteoarthritis

To describe the weight-bearing compensation in working dogs with bilateral hip osteoarthritis (OA), fifty police working dogs were evaluated with a weight distribution platform at the initial evaluation and after intra-articular treatment (a negative control - 0.9% sodium chloride (NaCl), a platelet concentrate, Hylan G-F 20, triamcinolone hexacetonide or stanozolol). Six evaluation sessions were performed, over a 180-day period. Results were compared by breed, age, sex, weight and Orthopedic Foundation for Animals hip grade scores with the Independent Samples T-Test, repeated samples Analysis of variance and Pearson correlation coefficient, p<0.05. Animals had a mean age of 6.5±2.4 years and a bodyweight of 26.7±5.2kg. No significant differences were observed when comparing weight-bearing for different breeds, sex, hip grades or weight during the initial evaluation. Significant differences were observed in deviation (p<0.01) and symmetry index (p<0.01) between the control and treatment groups during the follow-up period. A weight shift from pelvic to thoracic limbs was observed, with a weak, although significant, correlation between a pelvic limb and the opposing contralateral thoracic limb. Labrador Retrievers showed higher symmetry index and deviation from normal values during the follow-up period than German Shepherd Dogs and Dutch Shepherd Dogs. Male dogs also showed higher symmetry index and deviation comparing with females. At this period, the symmetry index showed a weak, although significant, correlation with body weight. Weight-bearing of all limbs correlated with the remaining limbs, reflecting a more balanced weight distribution than the initial evaluation. The weight distribution platform can be used to evaluate patients, at the initial presentation and during the assessment of response to treatment.

Effect of a Corset on the Gait of Healthy Beagle Dogs

Simple Summary

In recent years, corsets have been used in the prevention of nerve diseases in dogs and in their rehabilitation following surgery. The Anifull Dog’s Corset Pro, made by Daiya Industry Co., Ltd., is manufactured and sold for this purpose, but no studies have yet been conducted to verify its effectiveness. To evaluate the effects of the corset, we analyzed the gait of healthy beagle dogs that were or were not wearing the Anifull Dog’s Corset Pro. We found no difference in the walking speed of the dogs, but wearing the corset reduced the horizontal sway of the back. In conclusion, this corset does not affect the gait of dogs and may help body stability. Therefore, the Anifull Dog’s Corset Pro may be useful for the treatment of dog nerve conditions.

Abstract

The prognosis for intervertebral disc disease (IVDD), a common neurologic disease in dogs, varies, with some cases requiring long-term rehabilitation. Corsets are used as part of the physical rehabilitation of dogs, and one of these, the Anifull Dog’s Corset Pro, is manufactured and sold by Daiya Industry Co., Ltd. This corset is used to relieve pain caused by spinal cord and vertebral diseases, and to prevent neurological conditions from worsening, by limiting spinal movement. However, the effect of the Anifull Dog’s Corset Pro on gait has not yet been clarified. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the effects of this corset on the gait of dogs using kinematic and kinetic analyses. Five healthy beagle dogs wearing corsets were trotted, kinematic and kinetic parameters were measured using motion capture and force plates, and the results were compared to those obtained when the dogs were not wearing a corset. The range of motion of the angle formed by the 13th thoracic vertebra and the 7th lumbar vertebra at the apex of the 7th cervical vertebra was significantly reduced in the corset-wearing dogs. Thus, the Anifull Dog’s Corset Pro may improve trunk stability without affecting gait.

Surface Electromyography of the Longissimus and Gluteus Medius Muscles in Greyhounds Walking and Trotting on Ground Flat, Up, and Downhill

Simple Summary

In the field of canine physical rehabilitation and sports medicine, knowledge of muscle function in the therapeutic exercises prescribed is needed by physical therapists and veterinary surgeons. The longissimus dorsi and gluteus medius muscles are of great interest due to their role in locomotion related to frequent canine diseases. The muscle activity of these two muscles was studied in five Greyhound dogs performing slow, controlled leash walking and trotting on ground exercises uphill and downhill, commonly prescribed as therapeutic exercises. Results showed that for the same incline, the muscle activity of longissimus muscle was higher at the trot than at the walk. It was also shown that incline and decline affected the muscle activity of the longissimus and gluteus medius muscles of dogs walking or trotting on the ground. Walking and trotting up and downhill added separate therapeutic value to flat motion. The results of the present study might contribute to a better understanding of the function of longissimus and gluteus medius muscles in dogs, this being especially useful for the field of canine rehabilitation.

Abstract

In the field of canine rehabilitation, knowledge of muscle function in the therapeutic exercises prescribed is needed by physical therapists and veterinary surgeons. To gain insight into the function of longissimus dorsi (LD) and gluteus medius (GM) muscles in dogs, five Greyhounds performing leash walking and trotting on the ground flat, up (+7%), and downhill (−7%) were studied by surface electromyography, and the mean and maximum activity was compared. For the same incline, the surface electromyography (sEMG) of LD was higher (p < 0.05) at the trot than at the walk. In LD muscle, trotting uphill showed significantly higher maximum activity than any other exercise. A change of +7% incline or −7% decline affected (increased or decreased, respectively) the mean sEMG of the LD and GM muscles of dogs walking or trotting on the ground. When combined, the influence of gait and incline on electromyographic activity was analyzed, and walking at certain inclines showed no difference with trotting at certain inclines. Walking and trotting up and downhill added separate therapeutic value to flat motion. The results of the present study might contribute to a better understanding of the function of LD and GM muscles in dogs, this being especially useful for the field of canine rehabilitation.

Head and pelvic vertical displacement in dogs with induced swinging limb lameness: an experimental study

Background

Swinging limb lameness is defined as a motion disturbance ascribed to a limb in swing phase. Little is known about its biomechanics in dogs, particularly about the body motions that accompany it, such as vertical head and pelvic motion asymmetry. The aim of this study was to describe the changes in vertical head and pelvic motion asymmetry in dogs with induced swinging limb motion disturbance, mimicking a swinging limb lameness. Fore- and hind-limb lameness was induced in ten sound dogs by placing a weight (200 g) proximal to the carpus or tarsus, respectively. Marker-based motion capture by eight infrared light emitting video cameras recorded the dogs when trotting on a treadmill. Body symmetry parameters were calculated, including differences between the two highest positions of the head (HDmax) and pelvis (PDmax) and between the two lowest positions of the head (HDmin) and pelvis (PDmin), with a value of zero indicating perfect symmetry.

Results

Induction of swinging forelimb lameness showed significant changes in HDmax (median and range: sound 1.3 mm [− 4.7 to 3.1], in the left side − 28.5 mm [− 61.2 to − 17.9] and in the right side 20.1 mm [− 4.4 to 47.5]) and, induction of swinging hind limb lameness showed significant changes in PDmax (sound 2.7 mm [− 7.4 to 7.2], in the left side − 10.9 mm [− 22.4 to 0.5] and in the right side 8.6 mm [− 3 to 30]), as well as an increased hip movement asymmetry (sound 1.6 mm [− 8.6 to 19.9], in the left side − 18.1 mm [− 36.7 to 5.4] and in the right side 15 mm [− 20.7 to 32.1]) (P < 0.05).

Conclusions

Induced swinging fore- and hind limb lameness resulted in significant increased asymmetry of the maximal vertical displacement movement of the head and pelvis, due to decreased lifting of the head in forelimb lameness and of the pelvis in hind limb lameness. The results suggest that asymmetry of the maximal vertical displacement of the head and pelvis (i.e. lifting) is a key lameness sign to evaluate during examination of swinging limb lameness.

Comparative kinematic gait analysis in young and old Beagle dogs

Age-related involution in dogs involves loss of muscle mass and changes in connective tissue and articular cartilage. The aim of this study was to examine whether an age-related influence on joint mobility can be detected in the absence of disease. Five young (mean age 2.0 years) and five old (mean age 10.4 years) healthy and sound Beagle dogs underwent computer-assisted gait analysis during locomotion on a treadmill. Shoulder, elbow, carpal, hip, stifle, and tarsal joint angles including joint angle progression curves, minimum and maximum joint angles, and range of motion (ROM) in degrees were analyzed. The old group had a smaller maximum joint angle (p = 0.037) and ROM (p = 0.037) of the carpal joint; there were similar tendencies in the shoulder, elbow, and carpal joints. Descriptive analysis of the progression curves revealed less flexion and extension of the forelimb joints. The results indicate restricted joint mobility of the forelimb in old dogs, primarily of the carpal joint. Results in the joints of the hindlimb were inconsistent, and the contrasting alterations may be due to a compensatory mechanism. As most alterations were found in the distal joints, these should receive particular attention when examining elderly dogs.

Prevalence, duration and risk factors for appendicular osteoarthritis in a UK dog population under primary veterinary care

Osteoarthritis is the most common joint disease diagnosed in veterinary medicine and poses considerable challenges to canine welfare. This study aimed to investigate prevalence, duration and risk factors of appendicular osteoarthritis in dogs under primary veterinary care in the UK. The VetCompass^TM programme collects clinical data on dogs attending UK primary-care veterinary practices. The study included all VetCompass^TM dogs under veterinary care during 2013. Candidate osteoarthritis cases were identified using multiple search strategies. A random subset was manually evaluated against a case definition. Of 455,557 study dogs, 16,437 candidate osteoarthritis cases were identified; 6104 (37%) were manually checked and 4196 (69% of sample) were confirmed as cases. Additional data on demography, clinical signs, duration and management were extracted for confirmed cases. Estimated annual period prevalence (accounting for subsampling) of appendicular osteoarthritis was 2.5% (CI₉₅: 2.4-2.5%) equating to around 200,000 UK affected dogs annually. Risk factors associated with osteoarthritis diagnosis included breed (e.g. Labrador, Golden Retriever), being insured, being neutered, of higher bodyweight and being older than eight years. Duration calculation trials suggest osteoarthritis affects 11.4% of affected individuals' lifespan, providing further evidence for substantial impact of osteoarthritis on canine welfare at the individual and population level.

Kinetic and kinematic evaluation of compensatory movements of the head, pelvis and thoracolumbar spine associated with asymmetric weight bearing of the pelvic limbs in trotting dogs

Objectives: To determine ground reaction forces, head and pelvis vertical motion (HVM and PVM, respectively), and thoraco-lumbar lateral angular motion (LAM) of the spine using kinematic gait analysis in dogs with mild asymmetric weight-bearing of the pelvic limbs while trotting.

Methods: Twenty-seven hound-type dogs were fitted with reflective markers placed on the sagittal crest of the skull, the ischiatic tuberosity, and thoracolumbar spine of dogs to track motion while trotting. Kinetic and kinematic data were used to characterize asymmetry between the left and right pelvic limbs, and to describe HVM, PVM and thoraco-lumbar LAM. Maximum and minimum position and total motion values were determined for each measured variable.

Results: Dogs with asymmetric weight bearing of the pelvic limbs had greater PVM on the side with a greater peak vertical force (PVF), and greater thoraco-lumbar LAM toward the side with a lower PVF while trotting. No differences in mean HVM were detected, and there were no significant correlations between the magnitude of HVM, PVM and thoraco-lumbar LAM and the degree of asymmetric weight bearing.

Clinical significance: Dogs with subtle asymmetric weight bearing of a pelvic limb had patterns of body motion that may be useful in identifying subtle lameness in dogs; greater PVM on the side with greater weight bearing and greater thoraco-lumbar LAM toward the side with less weight bearing while trotting. Description of these compensatory movements is valuable when evaluating dogs with subtle weight bearing asymmetry in the pelvic limbs and may improve the sensitivity of lameness detection during subjective clinical lameness examination.

Effect of Limb Position at the Time of Skin Marker Application on Sagittal Plane Kinematics of the Dog

Objectives To evaluate the effect of limb position during initial skin marker application on sagittal plane kinematics of the hindlimb.

Methods Six healthy dogs (20–30 kg) were evaluated. An established two-dimensional kinematic model of the pelvic limb was utilized to describe sagittal plane motion. Kinematic markers were applied separately for each dog while standing in three different positions: (1) the limb extended cranially, (2) a normal standing limb position and (3) the limb extended caudally. Following marker application at each of the three positions, dynamic gait was recorded at a walk (velocity, 0.9–1.2 m/s; acceleration, 0.5m/s ² ). Five valid trials were used for comparison. Complete waveform analysis was performed with generalized indicator function analysis (GIFA). Maximum and minimum joint angles and joint range of motion were compared with a one-way repeated measures ANOVA with significance at p < 0.05.

Results Significant differences were found between stifle waveforms. No differences were found between the hip or tarsus waveforms. Minimum and maximum joint angles were significantly different for the hip and stifle but not for the tarsus. No differences were found between ranges of motion for any joint evaluated.

Clinical Significance Limb position at the time of skin marker application affects gait data and is an important consideration for kinematic analysis of the hindlimb in dogs.

Functional outcome measures in a surgical model of hip osteoarthritis in dogs

Background

The hip is one of the most common sites of osteoarthritis in the body, second only to the knee in prevalence. However, current animal models of hip osteoarthritis have not been assessed using many of the functional outcome measures used in orthopaedics, a characteristic that could increase their utility in the evaluation of therapeutic interventions. The canine hip shares similarities with the human hip, and functional outcome measures are well documented in veterinary medicine, providing a baseline for pre-clinical evaluation of therapeutic strategies for the treatment of hip osteoarthritis. The purpose of this study was to evaluate a surgical model of hip osteoarthritis in a large laboratory animal model and to evaluate functional and end-point outcome measures.

Methods

Seven dogs were subjected to partial surgical debridement of cartilage from one femoral head. Pre- and postoperative pain and functional scores, gait analysis, radiographs, accelerometry, goniometry and limb circumference were evaluated through a 20-week recovery period, followed by histological evaluation of cartilage and synovium.

Results

Animals developed histological and radiographic evidence of osteoarthritis, which was correlated with measurable functional impairment. For example, Mankin scores in operated limbs were positively correlated to radiographic scores but negatively correlated to range of motion, limb circumference and 20-week peak vertical force.

Conclusions

This study demonstrates that multiple relevant functional outcome measures can be used successfully in a large laboratory animal model of hip osteoarthritis. These measures could be used to evaluate relative efficacy of therapeutic interventions relevant to human clinical care.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40634-016-0053-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Adaptations in muscle activity to induced, short-term hindlimb lameness in trotting dogs

Muscle tissue has a great intrinsic adaptability to changing functional demands. Triggering more gradual responses such as tissue growth, the immediate responses to altered loading conditions involve changes in the activity. Because the reduction in a limb's function is associated with marked deviations in the gait pattern, understanding the muscular responses in laming animals will provide further insight into their compensatory mechanisms as well as help to improve treatment options to prevent musculoskeletal sequelae in chronic patients. Therefore, this study evaluated the changes in muscle activity in adaptation to a moderate, short-term, weight-bearing hindlimb lameness in two leg and one back muscle using surface electromyography (SEMG). In eight sound adult dogs that trotted on an instrumented treadmill, bilateral, bipolar recordings of the m. triceps brachii, the m. vastus lateralis and the m. longissimus dorsi were obtained before and after lameness was induced. Consistent with the unchanged vertical forces as well as temporal parameters, neither the timing nor the level of activity changed significantly in the m. triceps brachii. In the ipsilateral m. vastus lateralis, peak activity and integrated SEMG area were decreased, while they were significantly increased in the contralateral hindlimb. In both sides, the duration of the muscle activity was significantly longer due to a delayed offset. These observations are in accordance with previously described kinetic and kinematic changes as well as changes in muscle mass. Adaptations in the activity of the m. longissimus dorsi concerned primarily the unilateral activity and are discussed regarding known alterations in trunk and limb motions.