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A Four-Monoclonal Antibody Combination Potently Neutralizes Multiple Botulinum Neurotoxin Serotypes C and D. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13090641. [PMID: 34564645 PMCID: PMC8472335 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13090641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Revised: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Human botulism can be caused by botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) serotypes A to G. Here, we present an antibody-based antitoxin composed of four human monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against BoNT/C, BoNT/D, and their mosaic toxins. This work built on our success in generating protective mAbs to BoNT /A, B and E serotypes. We generated mAbs from human immune single-chain Fv (scFv) yeast-display libraries and isolated scFvs with high affinity for BoNT/C, BoNT/CD, BoNT/DC and BoNT/D serotypes. We identified four mAbs that bound non-overlapping epitopes on multiple serotypes and mosaic BoNTs. Three of the mAbs underwent molecular evolution to increase affinity. A four-mAb combination provided high-affinity binding and BoNT neutralization of both serotypes and their mosaic toxins. The mAbs have potential utility as therapeutics and as diagnostics capable of recognizing and neutralizing BoNT/C and BoNT/D serotypes and their mosaic toxins. A derivative of the four-antibody combination (NTM-1634) completed a Phase 1 clinical trial (Snow et al., Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 2019) with no drug-related serious adverse events.
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Lanci A, Rinnovati R, Anniballi F, Auricchio B, Scalfaro C, Menchetti M, Spadari A, Mariella J. The First Case of Botulism in a Donkey. Vet Sci 2019; 6:vetsci6020043. [PMID: 31096593 PMCID: PMC6631189 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci6020043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 05/02/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Botulism, a severe neuroparalytic disease that can affect humans, all warm-blooded animals, and some fishes, is caused by exotoxins produced by ubiquitous, obligate anaerobic, spore-forming bacteria belonging to the genus Clostridium and named botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT)-producing clostridia. This report presents the case of a 3-year-old donkey mare referred for progressive and worsening dysphagia of four days’ duration. Her voluntary effort in eating and drinking was conserved, and she was able to slow chew without swallowing. A complete neurological examination was performed, and botulism was strongly suspected. The ability to swallow feed and water returned on the tenth day of hospitalization and improved progressively. The jenny was discharged from the hospital after fifteen days. During the hospitalization, the Italian National Reference Centre for Botulism confirmed the diagnosis: mare’s feces were positive for BoNT/B and Clostridium botulinum type B.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aliai Lanci
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences (DIMEVET), University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra 50, Ozzano dell'Emilia, 40064 Bologna, Italy.
| | - Riccardo Rinnovati
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences (DIMEVET), University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra 50, Ozzano dell'Emilia, 40064 Bologna, Italy.
| | - Fabrizio Anniballi
- National Reference Centre for Botulism (NRCB), Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Roma, Italy.
| | - Bruna Auricchio
- National Reference Centre for Botulism (NRCB), Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Roma, Italy.
| | - Concetta Scalfaro
- National Reference Centre for Botulism (NRCB), Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Roma, Italy.
| | - Marika Menchetti
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences (DIMEVET), University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra 50, Ozzano dell'Emilia, 40064 Bologna, Italy.
| | - Alessandro Spadari
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences (DIMEVET), University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra 50, Ozzano dell'Emilia, 40064 Bologna, Italy.
| | - Jole Mariella
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences (DIMEVET), University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra 50, Ozzano dell'Emilia, 40064 Bologna, Italy.
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Mendoza FJ, Toribio RE, Perez-Ecija A. Donkey Internal Medicine—Part II: Cardiovascular, Respiratory, Neurologic, Urinary, Ophthalmic, Dermatology, and Musculoskeletal Disorders. J Equine Vet Sci 2018. [PMCID: PMC7125788 DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2018.02.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Cardiovascular diseases are scarcely reported in donkeys, probably linked to their limited athletic attitude and low frequency of poor performance-related examinations. Reports on treatments for cardiovascular pathologies are anecdotal in donkeys. Respiratory tract anatomy shows important differences between horses and donkeys. Donkeys and mules can act as reservoirs spreading many viral, bacterial, and parasitic infectious respiratory diseases. Mosquito and tick-borne encephalitis have been reported in these species in the later years, and even donkeys are being used as sentinels in some areas to detect these emerging diseases. Management and treatment of lithiases can be transferable from horses; however, the same assumption must still be demonstrated for acute and chronic renal diseases. Ocular pathologies are similar to horses, with corneal ulcers frequently observed. Lameness is a common problem in donkeys, with laminitis as the most reported cause followed by pedal abscess. Donkeys are different to horses. Numerous physiological and clinicopathologic idiosyncrasies are reported in horses. Data published for horses should not be extrapolated for donkeys. Specific reference ranges, doses, and protocols have to be used for donkeys.
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Chatla K, Gaunt PS, Petrie-Hanson L, Ford L, Hanson LA. Zebrafish Sensitivity to Botulinum Neurotoxins. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:toxins8050132. [PMID: 27153088 PMCID: PMC4885047 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8050132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Revised: 04/12/2016] [Accepted: 04/20/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNT) are the most potent known toxins. The mouse LD50 assay is the gold standard for testing BoNT potency, but is not sensitive enough to detect the extremely low levels of neurotoxin that may be present in the serum of sensitive animal species that are showing the effects of BoNT toxicity, such as channel catfish affected by visceral toxicosis of catfish. Since zebrafish are an important animal model for diverse biomedical and basic research, they are readily available and have defined genetic lines that facilitate reproducibility. This makes them attractive for use as an alternative bioassay organism. The utility of zebrafish as a bioassay model organism for BoNT was investigated. The 96 h median immobilizing doses of BoNT/A, BoNT/C, BoNT/E, and BoNT/F for adult male Tübingen strain zebrafish (0.32 g mean weight) at 25 °C were 16.31, 124.6, 4.7, and 0.61 picograms (pg)/fish, respectively. These findings support the use of the zebrafish-based bioassays for evaluating the presence of BoNT/A, BoNT/E, and BoNT/F. Evaluating the basis of the relatively high resistance of zebrafish to BoNT/C and the extreme sensitivity to BoNT/F may reveal unique functional patterns to the action of these neurotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamalakar Chatla
- Department of Basic Science, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA.
| | - Patricia S Gaunt
- Thad Cochran National Warmwater Aquaculture Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, Stoneville, MS 38756, USA.
| | - Lora Petrie-Hanson
- Department of Basic Science, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA.
| | - Lorelei Ford
- Department of Basic Science, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA.
| | - Larry A Hanson
- Department of Basic Science, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA.
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Abstract
This paper presents the case of a six year-old, male, thoroughbred horse with clinical signs of inappetence, weakness, and incoordination when walking. Clinical examination showed that the horse staggered and leaned to the left side. Feedstuff was present inside and around its mouth. Salivation was increased and there was no reflex at the palpebrae and tongue. The horse had difficulty swallowing and the tone of its tail was reduced. Botulism was diagnosed based on the clinical signs. Antibiotic (ceftiofur) and fluid-electrolyte treatment was commenced. Next day, neostigmin was added to the horse’s treatment, and it became recumbent. The horse’s palpebral, tongue and tail reflexes returned partially after neostigmine methylsulphate treatment on the same day and it stood up on day four. However, it could not swallow anything during the whole week, so after getting permission from the owner, the horse was euthanized on day 10. Samples of the colonic content and blood serum were sent by courier to the laboratory for toxin neutralization, however, botulinum neurotoxins could not be detected. After that, serum samples from days 6 and 10 were sent to another laboratory for testing for botulinum neurotoxin antibodies by ELISA. Specific antibodies against botulinum neurotoxin type A were measured, indicating a previous, immuno-relevant contact with the toxin. This seroconversion for type A supports the clinical botulism diagnosis. Type A botulism is rarely seen in Europe and has been detected in a horse in Turkey for the first time.
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Johnson AL, McAdams-Gallagher SC, Aceto H. Outcome of adult horses with botulism treated at a veterinary hospital: 92 cases (1989-2013). J Vet Intern Med 2014; 29:311-9. [PMID: 25408202 PMCID: PMC4858097 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.12502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2014] [Revised: 08/26/2014] [Accepted: 10/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background There are no studies evaluating a large population of adult horses treated for botulism. Reported survival rates in outbreak situations are low; however, many horses in outbreaks do not receive treatment. Hypothesis/Objectives That adult horses treated at a veterinary hospital would have improved survival compared to outbreak situations. Additional aims included identification of predictors of nonsurvival. Animals All horses greater than 6 months of age with a final diagnosis of botulism admitted to a veterinary teaching hospital between 1989 and 2013 were included. Methods Retrospective study. Historical, admission, and hospitalization data were retrieved from medical records and associations between variables and nonsurvival were identified using logistic regression. Two multivariable models were developed pertaining to (1) information available at admission and (2) clinical findings during hospitalization. Results Ninety‐two records met inclusion criteria. Retained variables for the two models indicated that higher rectal temperature (OR, 1.94; CI, 1.19–3.17) and dysphagia (OR, 4.04; CI, 1.01–16.17) observed at admission increased the odds of survival, as did treatment with antitoxin (OR, 121.30; CI, 9.94–1,480.65). Horses with abnormal respiratory effort or inability to stand had decreased odds of survival. Overall survival was 48% but was significantly higher (67%, P = .011) for horses that arrived standing, and even higher (95%, P < .001) for horses that remained able to stand throughout hospitalization. Complications occurred in 62% of horses but were not associated with nonsurvival. Conclusions and Clinical Importance Horses that lose the ability to stand have a poor chance of survival. Complications are common in treated horses but do not reduce survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Johnson
- Botulism Reference Laboratory, New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Kennett Square, PA; Department of Clinical Studies, New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Kennett Square, PA
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Taylor SD, Toth B, Townsend WM, Bentley RT. Mechanical ventilation and management of an adult horse with presumptive botulism. J Vet Emerg Crit Care (San Antonio) 2014; 24:594-601. [PMID: 25041561 DOI: 10.1111/vec.12196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2012] [Accepted: 05/19/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To describe the clinical course, management, and outcome of a horse with a presumptive diagnosis of botulism treated with long-term mechanical ventilation. CASE SUMMARY A 6-year-old Quarter Horse gelding with a history of esophageal obstruction was evaluated for progressive tetraparesis. Generalized and progressive skeletal muscle weakness characterized by recumbency, decreased tongue, tail, eyelid, and anal tone, and respiratory failure was observed. Anticholinergic signs including decreased salivation, xerophthalmia, and ileus were also noted. A presumptive diagnosis of botulism was made, although mouse inoculation and spore identification testing were negative. Pentavalent botulism antitoxin was administered on Day 3. The horse was maintained on a water mattress and was managed with mechanical ventilation for 2 weeks. Complications encountered included necrotic rhinitis, intertrigo, decubital ulceration, jugular and cephalic vein thrombophlebitis, corneal ulceration, and transient ventricular tachycardia. The horse showed marked improvement in skeletal muscle strength and parasympathetic nervous system function, allowing it to be successfully weaned from the ventilator but suffered large colon volvulus on Day 21 and was euthanized. NEW OR UNIQUE INFORMATION PROVIDED To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of successful weaning from long-term mechanical ventilation and management of recumbency using a water mattress in an adult horse with presumptive botulism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra D Taylor
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907
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Chatla K, Gaunt PS, Hanson L, Gao DX, Wills R. Determination of the median lethal dose of botulinum serotype E in channel catfish fingerlings. JOURNAL OF AQUATIC ANIMAL HEALTH 2012; 24:105-109. [PMID: 22838081 DOI: 10.1080/08997659.2012.675935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The median lethal dose of botulinum serotype E in 5.3-g channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus fingerlings was determined. Five tanks (five fish/tank) were assigned to each of the following treatment groups: 70, 50, 35, 25, or 15 pg of purified botulinum serotype E. Fish were injected intracoelomically and observed for 96 h. Administration of the toxin resulted in initial hyperactivity followed by erratic swimming, paresis, and death. The cumulative mortality by treatment group was 100% at 70 pg, 96% at 50 pg, 100% at 35 pg, 88% at 25 pg, and 56% at 15 pg. The median lethal dose was calculated as 13.7 pg/fish (equivalent to a 0.81 median lethal dose for mice Mus musculus) using a logistic regression model. All fish were necropsied; lesions included exophthalmia, ascites, splenic congestion, intussusception of the intestines, congested spleen, and blanching of the intestinal tract. The resultant clinical signs and lesions were similar to those noted in the syndrome of visceral toxicosis of catfish. This study indicates that channel catfish are more sensitive to the effects of botulinum serotype E than laboratory mice, and the signs and lesions of visceral toxicosis of catfish were replicated by injecting catfish with the toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamalakar Chatla
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi 39762, USA
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Dawson DR. Toxins and adverse drug reactions affecting the equine nervous system. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2011; 27:507-26. [PMID: 22100042 DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2011.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
This article provides an overview of the more common toxins and adverse drug reactions, along with more rare toxins and reactions (Table 1), that result in neurologic dysfunction in horses. A wide variety of symptoms, treatments, and outcomes are seen with toxic neurologic disease in horses. An in-depth history and thorough physical examination are needed to determine if a toxin or adverse drug reaction is responsible for the clinical signs. Once a toxin or adverse drug reaction is identified, the specific antidote, if available, and supportive care should be administered promptly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominic R Dawson
- William Pritchard Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, University of California, Davis, One Garrod Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Abstract
NMD is an important cause of morbidity in horses. Signs of dysfunction could be variable depending on the specific area affected. NM disease can go unrecognized if a thorough evaluation is not performed in diseased horses. Electrodiagnostic testing is an area that has the potential to document and improve our understanding of NM disease yet is uncommonly performed. Keeping an open and observant mind will enhance our ability to search and find answers.
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Johnson AL, McAdams SC, Whitlock RH. Type A botulism in horses in the United States: a review of the past ten years (1998-2008). J Vet Diagn Invest 2010; 22:165-73. [PMID: 20224073 DOI: 10.1177/104063871002200201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The objective of the current retrospective study was to describe naturally occurring type A botulism in horses in the United States. In the past 10 years, the Botulism Laboratory at the University of Pennsylvania's School of Veterinary Medicine has identified 3 isolated cases and 8 outbreaks of type A botulism in horses via samples positive for Clostridium botulinum type A toxin or spores using the mouse bioassay test. Additional information was obtained by review of submission forms and by telephone or email interviews. Almost all type A cases and outbreaks occurred in the western United States, with Oregon and Idaho overrepresented. Type A toxin was identified in only 1 outbreak; all other identified cases and outbreaks were positive for spores but not preformed toxin. Reported clinical signs included progressive muscle weakness, recumbency, decreased tail and/or tongue tone, dysphagia, respiratory distress, and death. Isolated cases involved foals < or =1 month of age; outbreaks involved horses > or =11 months. One hundred and nineteen horses were potentially exposed to the toxin source; 54 out of 119 showed signs of botulism, and 49 out of 54 affected horses were confirmed dead. The number of horses affected per outbreak ranged from 2 to 24. The source of infection was confirmed to be hay or silage in 6 out of 8 outbreaks and was unknown in 2 out of 8 outbreaks. The present report is the first description of outbreaks of type A botulism in horses and has important implications for prevention and treatment. Based on these findings, type A botulism should be considered in suspect cases of equine botulism in the western United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy L Johnson
- Section of Medicine, New Bolton Center, 382 West Street Road, Kennett Square, PA 19348, USA.
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Steinman A, Kachtan I, Levi O, Shpigel NY. Seroprevalence of antibotulinum neurotoxin type C antibodies in horses in Israel. Equine Vet J 2010; 39:232-5. [PMID: 17520974 DOI: 10.2746/042516407x158368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY Clostridium botulinum type C is prevalent in Israel and outbreaks recorded in many species, other than horses. Association between levels of anti-BoNT/C antibodies and equine grass sickness (EGS) have been demonstrated but seroprevalence of anti-BoNT/C antibodies in horses has not been reported nor has EGS been reported in Israel. OBJECTIVES To determine the seroprevalence of specific anti-BoNT/C antibodies in horses in Israel and to determine whether age, breed and gender, or geographical region of farms are potential risk factors for exposure to BoNT/C. HYPOTHESIS Anti-BoNT/C antibodies are prevalent among horses in Israel and farm and horse-level variables are associated with increased risk for exposure. METHODS Serum samples from 198 horses were collected and the levels of specific anti-BoNT/C antibodies were determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). For each categorical variable indicator variables were created and the odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) for the outcome variable were calculated using a univariable and multivariable logistic regression models. RESULTS A total of 61 (30.8%) horses were ELISA positive for anti-BoNT/C IgG antibodies. The farm and its geographical region were associated significantly with seropositivity, horse-level variables, such as gender and breed, were also associated with seropositivity. Quarter Horse and Warmblood mares placed in the southern region of Israel had the highest odds to be tested positive for anti-BoNT/C IgG antibodies. CONCLUSIONS AND POTENTIAL RELEVANCE Several farm and various horse-level risk factors for exposure to BoNT/C, found in this study, could be correlated to previously reported risk factors of EGS. Studies are required to determine the predisposing factors that cause EGS, which is apparently not present in Israel.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Steinman
- Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Quality Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, POB 12, Rehovot 76100, Israel
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Wylie CE, Proudman CJ. Equine Grass Sickness: Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Global Distribution. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2009; 25:381-99. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2009.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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Gaunt PS, Kalb SR, Barr JR. Detection of botulinum type E toxin in channel catfish with visceral toxicosis syndrome using catfish bioassay and endopep mass spectrometry. J Vet Diagn Invest 2007; 19:349-54. [PMID: 17609342 DOI: 10.1177/104063870701900402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Visceral toxicosis of catfish (VTC) is a syndrome characterized by sudden mortality in apparently healthy market- and brooder-sized catfish (Ictalurus punctatus). This paper reports the design of a catfish neutralization assay to detect botulinum in catfish with VTC and verification by Endopep mass spectrometry (Endopep-MS). Sera from 6 affected catfish were incubated with botulinum antitoxin serotypes A, B, C, D, E, or F. For each serum sample, 3 experimental fingerlings were injected intracoelomically with each serotype-serum mixture and placed separately in an aquarium. Three fish were injected with VTC-affected serum only, and 3 fish were injected with unaffected serum only and also placed in separate aquaria. Signs of morbidity and mortality were seen in fish injected with sera combined with serotype A, B, C, or D, as well as in positive controls. No morbidity or mortality was seen in fish injected with sera combined with antitoxin serotypes E or F or negative control serum. Sera from affected and unaffected catfish were sent to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention for detection and differentiation of botulinum neurotoxin. Aliquots of 0.5 ml of sera were incubated with magnetic beads coated with antibodies to botulinum, and the beads were subjected to the Endopep-MS reaction. Sera from affected catfish tested positive for botulinum E. Sera from 34 unaffected catfish tested negative for botulinum. Although there was not enough botulinum present in affected samples to obtain exact quantification, the estimated quantity of botulinum E in these sera samples was between 0.01 and 0.5 mouse LD50/ml.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia S Gaunt
- Mississippi State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Stoneville, MS 38776, USA.
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Abstract
In this article, I have discussed the principles and methods of outbreak investigation, reinforcing important concepts with examples from the veterinary literature. The approach presented is applicable to outbreaks caused by any agent whether it is infectious versus noninfectious or contagious versus noncontagious. The solutions vary. The experience of others presented with similar situations may be especially helpful. Because of their nature, outbreaks are difficult to prepare for. When faced with a potential outbreak, the best strategy is to approach it scientifically, systematically, and with an open mind.
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Affiliation(s)
- R D Smith
- Division of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA.
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Abstract
Botulism should be considered in cases where weakness, paralysis, or intolerance to exercise might be seen in the horse. Dysphagia may also be present, although it is not a consistent finding. Potential sources include carrion in hay, moldy or otherwise rotted vegetation or forage, birds carrying material from animal burial or other similar sites, and contaminated carcasses on-site. Horses, especially foals, may also suffer from toxicoinfectious botulism, a condition where the C. botulinum might colonize and produce toxin within the gastrointestinal tract. Wounds also may harbor the organism and otherwise promote botulism. Diagnosis of botulism is often a clinical diagnosis backed up by elimination of other possible infectious, injurious, or toxic causes of weakness of the horse. Definitive diagnosis and type identification in the laboratory are difficult and usually require a suitable sample of the source material. Treatment often is unrewarding unless a case is identified early and the proper antitoxin is readily available. Prevention involves common sense approaches to feeding and care of the horse and, where possible, judicious use of vaccination in endemic areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- F D Galey
- Department of Veterinary Sciences and Wyoming State Veterinary Laboratory, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming, USA.
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