Mental and physiological wellbeing while rowing across the North Atlantic: a single-case study of subjective versus objective data

Introduction: Unassisted rowing across the Atlantic Ocean is an extreme undertaking challenging the human body in every possible way. The reported rowing journey lasted for 42 days in a small vessel with 12 rowers, each rowing for 12 h a day, broken into 3 h shifts. This schedule disrupts the natural circadian cycle and autonomic balance, affecting subjective and objective wellbeing and sleep quality, that lack continuous empirical quantification. Methods: With a self-reported questionnaire and objective heart rate variability measurements every second day in a single female rower, we monitor evolutions of the subjective sleep quality and mental wellbeing as well as autonomic body control over the journey duration. We evaluate the hypothesis that extreme rowing impairs subjective and objective data in a similar way over time and that 3 h shifts diminish the circadian rhythm of the autonomic body control. Results: The sleep quality was mainly influenced by wake ups during sleep, while mental wellbeing was predominantly influenced by physical exhaustion. The perceived sleep quality and wellbeing dropped 2-3 days after the start with the rower not yet accommodated, in the middle of the journey with major wake ups, and again 5-6 days prior to the end with major exhaustion of the participant. Evolutions of the subjective perceptions diverge from that of the heart rate variability. The body's autonomic recovery during short sleep periods progressively decreases over the journey duration while the vagal activity rises and the sympathovagal balance shifts towards vagal tone. The shifts of 3 h weaken the circadian rhythm of the heart rate variability. Discussion: Our results demonstrate how human body meets extreme mental and physical exhaustion on the high seas. The gained physiological and psychological insights also offer a basis for effective preparation of undertakings involving extreme physical exhaustion and sleep deprivation.

Potential Long-Term Health Problems Associated with Ultra-Endurance Running: A Narrative Review

It is well established that physical activity reduces all-cause mortality and can prolong life. Ultra-endurance running (UER) is an extreme sport that is becoming increasingly popular, and comprises running races above marathon distance, exceeding 6 h, and/or running fixed distances on multiple days. Serious acute adverse events are rare, but there is mounting evidence that UER may lead to long-term health problems. The purpose of this review is to present the current state of knowledge regarding the potential long-term health problems derived from UER, specifically potential maladaptation in key organ systems, including cardiovascular, respiratory, musculoskeletal, renal, immunological, gastrointestinal, neurological, and integumentary systems. Special consideration is given to youth, masters, and female athletes, all of whom may be more susceptible to certain long-term health issues. We present directions for future research into the pathophysiological mechanisms that underpin athlete susceptibility to long-term issues. Although all body systems can be affected by UER, one of the clearest effects of endurance exercise is on the cardiovascular system, including right ventricular dysfunction and potential increased risk of arrhythmias and hypertension. There is also evidence that rare cases of acute renal injury in UER could lead to progressive renal scarring and chronic kidney disease. There are limited data specific to female athletes, who may be at greater risk of certain UER-related health issues due to interactions between energy availability and sex-hormone concentrations. Indeed, failure to consider sex differences in the design of female-specific UER training programs may have a negative impact on athlete longevity. It is hoped that this review will inform risk stratification and stimulate further research about UER and the implications for long-term health.

Multidisciplinary Analysis of Differences Between Finisher and Non-finisher Ultra-Endurance Mountain Athletes

Ultra-endurance races are one of the most physically and psychologically demanding sports, depending performance on several elements. The aims of the present study were (i) to analyze differences in selected psychophysiological parameters between finisher and non-finisher ultra-endurance mountain athletes, and (ii) to analyze modifications in psychophysiological parameters before and after an ultra-endurance mountain event. Selected psychophysiological variables were assessed in 46 finishers and 24 non-finishers in two over 100 km ultra-endurance races were examined. We found how an ultra-endurance mountain race produced dehydration, a decrease in systolic blood pressure, weight and leg strength muscle values, as well as an increase in heart rate and rate of perceived exertion values. Finishers presented lower systolic blood pressure, weight, body mass index, half marathon time and fluid intake before competition day compared to non-finishers. In addition, body mass index, pre-race hydration, and performance in lower distance races were predictors of performance in these ultra-endurance mountain races.

Pre-race determinants influencing performance and finishing of a transcontinental 4486-km ultramarathon

BACKGROUND

Pre-race determinants influencing performance and finishing of one of the largest transcontinental multistage ultramarathons were investigated.

METHODS

Forty-four participants of the TransEurope FootRace 2009 (TEFR), running 4486 km in 64 stages (average 70.1 km daily) were analyzed regarding training and running history. This included years of regular endurance running (PRY), number of finished marathons, ultramarathons (UM) and multistage ultramarathons (MSUM), pre-race records (PRR) for marathon and specific UM races and the extent of pre-race training (PRT) in the last year before TEFR: volume (km/week), duration (h/week) and intensity (km/h).

RESULTS

Mean total running speed during TEFR was 8.25 km/h.Seventy-one percent of subjects finished the race. The mean PRT-volume extends 5500 km. Finishers and non-finishers of the TEFR did not show significant difference in any tested pre-race determinants. There was no association between PRY, number of finished marathons, UM, and MSUM and TEFR performance. There was very strong positive correlation between PRT-intensity and TEFR performance. PRT volume correlated with a medium effect size to TEFR performance. PRR in specific ultra-races (6-hour, 50-km, 100-km races) showed a high correlation to TEFR performance. Performance in ultramarathon correlates inversely with age.

CONCLUSIONS

Like in other endurance disciplines with shorter distances, in ultra-long multistage endurance running the athletes also need a stage-specific pre-race experience, training and adaptation if he wants to end up with a good performance. But dropping out of a MSUM seems not to be consistent with regard to specific pre-race experience. Further research results of TEFR project may reveal potential risk factors for non-finishing a transcontinental footrace.

How accurate are runners' prospective predictions of their race times?

Metacognition is a domain which has illuminated our understanding of the regulation of cognition, but has yet to be applied in detail to more physical activities. We used half marathon finish time predictions from 7211 runners to investigate the factors that influence running performance metacognitive accuracy. In particular, we were concerned with the effects of experience, gender, and age on calibration. We expected more experienced runners to be better calibrated than less experienced ones. Given analogous findings in the domain of metacognition, we expected women to be less overconfident in their predictions, and better calibrated than male runners. Based on the metacognition literature, we expected that if older runners have effectively learned from previous experience, they would be as well-calibrated as younger runners. In contrast, uninformed inferences not based on performance feedback would lead to overestimating performance for older compared to younger runners. As expected, experience in terms of both club membership and previous race completion improved calibration. Unexpectedly though, females were more overconfident than males, overestimating their performance and demonstrating poorer calibration. A positive relationship was observed between age and prediction accuracy, with older runners showing better calibration. The present study demonstrates that data, collected before a test of physical activity, can inform our understanding of how participants anticipate their performance, and how this ability is affected by a number of demographic and situational variables. Athletes and coaches alike should be aware of these variables to better understand, organise, plan, and predict running performance, potentially leading to more appropriate training sessions and faster race finish times.

[Ultramarathon with Type 1 Diabetes]

Ultramarathon with Type 1 Diabetes Abstract. We report the case of a 63-year-old runner with type 1 diabetes mellitus requiring insulin since the age of 21. At the age of 32, he ran his first marathon, and at the age of 34 the first ultramarathon. So far, he has finished more than 90 marathons and ultramarathons. Thanks to an insulin pump and continuous glucose monitoring, he has so far completed 48 24-h-runs with an average distance of 133 km. The analysis of running volume and HbA1c values showed a significant increase in monthly exercise volume, a significant decrease in HbA1c values over the years, and a significant correlation between monthly running kilometers and HbA1c values.

Characteristics, changes and influence of body composition during a 4486 km transcontinental ultramarathon: results from the TransEurope FootRace mobile whole body MRI-project

BACKGROUND

Almost nothing is known about the medical aspects of runners doing a transcontinental ultramarathon over several weeks. The results of differentiated measurements of changes in body composition during the Transeurope Footrace 2009 using a mobile whole body magnetic resonance (MR) imager are presented and the proposed influence of visceral and somatic adipose and lean tissue distribution on performance tested.

METHODS

22 participants were randomly selected for the repeated MR measurements (intervals: 800 km) with a 1.5 Tesla MR scanner mounted on a mobile unit during the 64-stage 4,486 km ultramarathon. A standardized and validated MRI protocol was used: T1 weighted turbo spin echo sequence, echo time 12 ms, repetition time 490 ms, slice thickness 10 mm, slice distance 10 mm (breath holding examinations). For topographic tissue segmentation and mapping a modified fuzzy c-means algorithm was used. A semi-automatic post-processing of whole body MRI data sets allows reliable analysis of the following body tissue compartments: Total body volume (TV), total somatic (TSV) and total visceral volume (TVV), total adipose (TAT) and total lean tissue (TLT), somatic (SLT) and visceral lean tissue (VLT), somatic (SAT) and visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and somatic adipose soft tissue (SAST). Specific volume changes were tested on significance. Tests on difference and relationship regarding prerace and race performance and non-finishing were done using statistical software SPSS.

RESULTS

Total, somatic and visceral volumes showed a significant decrease throughout the race. Adipose tissue showed a significant decrease compared to the start at all measurement times for TAT, SAST and VAT. Lean adipose tissues decreased until the end of the race, but not significantly. The mean relative volume changes of the different tissue compartments at the last measurement compared to the start were: TV -9.5% (SE 1.5%), TSV -9.4% (SE 1.5%), TVV -10.0% (SE 1.4%), TAT -41.3% (SE 2.3%), SAST -48.7% (SE 2.8%), VAT -64.5% (SE 4.6%), intraabdominal adipose tissue (IAAT) -67.3% (SE 4.3%), mediastinal adopose tissue (MAT) -41.5% (SE 7.1%), TLT -1.2% (SE 1.0%), SLT -1.4% (SE 1.1%). Before the start and during the early phase of the Transeurope Footrace 2009, the non-finisher group had a significantly higher percentage volume of TVV, TAT, SAST and VAT compared to the finisher group. VAT correlates significantly with prerace training volume and intensity one year before the race and with 50 km- and 24 hour-race records. Neither prerace body composition nor specific tissue compartment volume changes showed a significant relationship to performance in the last two thirds of the Transeurope Footrace 2009.

CONCLUSIONS

With this mobile MRI field study the complex changes in body composition during a multistage ultramarathon could be demonstrated in detail in a new and differentiated way. Participants lost more than half of their adipose tissue. Even lean tissue volume (mainly skeletal muscle tissue) decreased due to the unpreventable chronic negative energy balance during the race. VAT has the fastest and highest decrease compared to SAST and lean tissue compartments during the race. It seems to be the most sensitive morphometric parameter regarding the risk of non-finishing a transcontinental footrace and shows a direct relationship to prerace-performance. However, body volume or body mass and, therefore, fat volume has no correlation with total race performances of ultra-athletes finishing a 4,500 km multistage race.

Estimation bias: body mass and body height in endurance athletes

Body Mass Index is associated with endurance performance in athletes. Reported and measured values of body mass and body height in 1,618 endurance athletes (1,358 men, 260 women) showed that men and women both underestimated their body mass and overestimated their body height, leading to an underestimation of Body Mass Index. There were age and sex differences in estimates of height and weight; for both women and men, underestimation of Body Mass Index amounted to 0.4 kg/m2. Master athletes tended to underestimate their body mass and overestimate their body height thus leading to significant differences between estimated and measured Body Mass Index. However, the magnitude of underestimation of BMI probably has a negligible influence on performance predictions. The differences between measured and estimated body mass, height, and BMI were within the range of normal daily variation, and for body height even within the precision of the measurement (0.5 cm).

Psycho-social factors determining success in high-performance triathlon: compared perception in the coach-athlete pair

High-level sport can be analyzed using the complex system model, in which performance is constrained by many factors. Coaches' and athletes' perceptions of important positive and negative factors affecting performance were compared. Participants were 48 high-level international triathletes (n = 34) and their coaches (n = 14). They were personally interviewed via a questionnaire designed by four accredited experts, who selected groups of both positive and negative factors affecting performance. A list of factors was developed, in order of greater to lesser importance in the opinion of athletes and coaches, for subsequent analysis. Two ranked lists (positive and negative factors) indicated that athletes appear to rate personal environment factors (family, teammates, lack of support from relatives) higher, while the coaches tended to give more importance to technical and institutional aspects (institutional support, coach, medical support). There was complete agreement between coaches and triathletes about the top five positive factors. Negative factor agreement was somewhat lower (agreement on 3/5 factors). The most important positive factor for coaches and athletes was "dedication/engagement," while the most important factor adversely affecting performance was "injuries".

Ultramarathon runners: nature or nurture?

Ultramarathon running is increasingly popular. An ultramarathon is defined as a running event involving distances longer than the length of a traditional marathon of 42.195 km. In ultramarathon races, ~80% of the finishers are men. Ultramarathoners are typically ~45 y old and achieve their fastest running times between 30 and 49 y for men, and between 30 and 54 y for women. Most probably, ultrarunners start with a marathon before competing in an ultramarathon. In ultramarathoners, the number of previously completed marathons is significantly higher than the number of completed marathons in marathoners. However, recreational marathoners have a faster personal-best marathon time than ultramarathoners. Successful ultramarathoners have 7.6 ± 6.3 y of experience in ultrarunning. Ultramarathoners complete more running kilometers in training than marathoners do, but they run more slowly during training than marathoners. To summarize, ultramarathoners are master runners, have a broad experience in running, and prepare differently for an ultramarathon than marathoners do. However, it is not known what motivates male ultramarathoners and where ultramarathoners mainly originate. Future studies need to investigate the motivation of male ultramarathoners, where the best ultramarathoners originate, and whether they prepare by competing in marathons before entering ultramarathons.

European dominance in multistage ultramarathons: an analysis of finisher rate and performance trends from 1992 to 2010

BACKGROUND

Participation and performance trends regarding the nationality of ultraendurance athletes have been investigated in the triathlon, but not in running. The present study aimed to identify the countries in which multistage ultramarathons were held around the world and the nationalities of successful finishers.

METHODS

Finisher rates and performance trends of finishers in multistage ultramarathons held worldwide between 1992 and 2010 were investigated.

RESULTS

Between 1992 and 2010, the bulk of multistage ultramarathons were held in Germany and France, with more than 30 races organized in each country. Completion rates for men and women increased exponentially, with women representing on average 16.4% of the total field. Since 1992, 6480 athletes have competed in Morocco, 2538 in Germany, and 1842 in France. A total of 81.9% of athletes originated from Europe, and more specifically from France (22.9%), Great Britain (18.0%), and Germany (13.4%).

CONCLUSION

European ultramarathoners dominated the athletes who completed multistage ultramarathons worldwide, with specific dominance of French, British, and German athletes. Future studies should investigate social aspects, such as sport tourism, among European athletes to understand why European athletes are so interested in participating in multistage ultramarathons.

Comparison of anthropometric and training characteristics between recreational male marathoners and 24-hour ultramarathoners

Background

Of the anthropometry and training variables used to predict race performance in a 24-hour ultrarun, the personal best marathon time is the strongest predictor in recreational male 24-hour ultramarathoners. This finding raises the question of whether similarities exist between male recreational 24-hour ultramarathoners and male recreational marathoners.

Methods

The association between age, anthropometric variables (ie, body mass, body height, body mass index, percent body fat, skeletal muscle mass, limb circumference, and skinfold thickness at the pectoral, mid axillary, triceps, subscapular, abdominal, suprailiac, front thigh, and medial calf sites), previous experience and training characteristics (ie, volume, speed, and personal best time), and race time for 79 male recreational 24-hour ultramarathoners and 126 male recreational marathoners was investigated using bivariate and multivariate analysis.

Results

The 24-hour ultramarathoners were older (P < 0.05), had a lower circumference at both the upper arm (P < 0.05) and thigh (P < 0.01), and a lower skinfold thickness at the pectoral, axillary, and suprailiac sites (P < 0.05) compared with the marathoners. During training, the 24-hour ultramarathoners were running for more hours per week (P < 0.001) and completed more kilometers (P < 0.001), but were running slower (P < 0.01) compared with the marathoners. In the 24-hour ultramarathoners, neither anthropometric nor training variables were associated with kilometers completed in the race (P > 0.05). In the marathoners, percent body fat (P < 0.001) and running speed during training (P < 0.0001) were related to marathon race times.

Conclusion

In summary, differences in anthropometric and training predictor variables do exist between male recreational 24-hour ultramarathoners and male recreational marathoners for race performance.

The TransEurope FootRace Project: longitudinal data acquisition in a cluster randomized mobile MRI observational cohort study on 44 endurance runners at a 64-stage 4,486 km transcontinental ultramarathon

BACKGROUND

The TransEurope FootRace 2009 (TEFR09) was one of the longest transcontinental ultramarathons with an extreme endurance physical load of running nearly 4,500 km in 64 days. The aim of this study was to assess the wide spectrum of adaptive responses in humans regarding the different tissues, organs and functional systems being exposed to such chronic physical endurance load with limited time for regeneration and resulting negative energy balance. A detailed description of the TEFR project and its implemented measuring methods in relation to the hypotheses are presented.

METHODS

The most important research tool was a 1.5 Tesla magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanner mounted on a mobile unit following the ultra runners from stage to stage each day. Forty-four study volunteers (67% of the participants) were cluster randomized into two groups for MRI measurements (22 subjects each) according to the project protocol with its different research modules: musculoskeletal system, brain and pain perception, cardiovascular system, body composition, and oxidative stress and inflammation. Complementary to the diverse daily mobile MR-measurements on different topics (muscle and joint MRI, T2*-mapping of cartilage, MR-spectroscopy of muscles, functional MRI of the brain, cardiac and vascular cine MRI, whole body MRI) other methods were also used: ice-water pain test, psychometric questionnaires, bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), skinfold thickness and limb circumference measurements, daily urine samples, periodic blood samples and electrocardiograms (ECG).

RESULTS

Thirty volunteers (68%) reached the finish line at North Cape. The mean total race speed was 8.35 km/hour. Finishers invested 552 hours in total. The completion rate for planned MRI investigations was more than 95%: 741 MR-examinations with 2,637 MRI sequences (more than 200,000 picture data), 5,720 urine samples, 244 blood samples, 205 ECG, 1,018 BIA, 539 anthropological measurements and 150 psychological questionnaires.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates the feasibility of conducting a trial based centrally on mobile MR-measurements which were performed during ten weeks while crossing an entire continent. This article is the reference for contemporary result reports on the different scientific topics of the TEFR project, which may reveal additional new knowledge on the physiological and pathological processes of the functional systems on the organ, cellular and sub-cellular level at the limits of stress and strain of the human body. Please see related articles: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7015/10/76 and http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7015/10/77.

Body composition and hydration status changes in male and female open-water swimmers during an ultra-endurance event

Body mass changes during ultra-endurance performances have been described for running, cycling and for swimming in a heated pool. The present field study of 20 male and 11 female open-water swimmers investigated the changes in body composition and hydration status during an ultra-endurance event. Body mass, both estimated fat mass and skeletal muscle mass, haematocrit, plasma sodium concentration ([Na+]) and urine specific gravity were determined. Energy intake, energy expenditure and fluid intake were estimated. Males experienced significant reductions in body mass (-0.5 %) and skeletal muscle mass (-1.1 %) (P < 0.05) during the race compared to females who showed no significant changes with regard to these variables (P > 0.05). Changes in percent body fat, fat mass, and fat-free mass were heterogeneous and did not reach statistical significance (P > 0.05) between gender groups. Fluid intake relative to plasma volume was higher in females than in males during the ultra-endurance event. Compared to males, females' average increase in haematocrit was 3.3 percentage points (pp) higher, urine specific gravity decrease 0.1 pp smaller, and plasma [Na+] 1.3 pp higher. The observed patterns of fluid intake, changes in plasma volume, urine specific gravity, and plasma [Na+] suggest that, particularly in females, a combination of fluid shift from blood vessels to interstitial tissue, facilitated by skeletal muscle damage, as well as exercise-associated hyponatremia had occurred. To summarise, changes in body composition and hydration status are different in male compared to female open-water ultra-endurance swimmers.

Personal best marathon time and longest training run, not anthropometry, predict performance in recreational 24-hour ultrarunners

In recent studies, a relationship between both low body fat and low thicknesses of selected skinfolds has been demonstrated for running performance of distances from 100 m to the marathon but not in ultramarathon. We investigated the association of anthropometric and training characteristics with race performance in 63 male recreational ultrarunners in a 24-hour run using bi and multivariate analysis. The athletes achieved an average distance of 146.1 (43.1) km. In the bivariate analysis, body mass (r = -0.25), the sum of 9 skinfolds (r = -0.32), the sum of upper body skinfolds (r = -0.34), body fat percentage (r = -0.32), weekly kilometers ran (r = 0.31), longest training session before the 24-hour run (r = 0.56), and personal best marathon time (r = -0.58) were related to race performance. Stepwise multiple regression showed that both the longest training session before the 24-hour run (p = 0.0013) and the personal best marathon time (p = 0.0015) had the best correlation with race performance. Performance in these 24-hour runners may be predicted (r2 = 0.46) by the following equation: Performance in a 24-hour run, km) = 234.7 + 0.481 (longest training session before the 24-hour run, km) - 0.594 (personal best marathon time, minutes). For practical applications, training variables such as volume and intensity were associated with performance but not anthropometric variables. To achieve maximum kilometers in a 24-hour run, recreational ultrarunners should have a personal best marathon time of ∼3 hours 20 minutes and complete a long training run of ∼60 km before the race, whereas anthropometric characteristics such as low body fat or low skinfold thicknesses showed no association with performance.

Do male 100-km ultra-marathoners overdrink?

PURPOSE

Fluid overload is considered a main risk factor for exercise-associated hyponatremia (EAH). The aim of this study was to investigate the incidence of EAH in ultra-runners at the 100 km ultra-run in Biel, Switzerland.

METHODS

Pre- and postrace, body mass, urinary specific gravity, hemoglobin, hematocrit, plasma [Na+], and plasma volume were determined.

RESULTS

Of the 145 finishers, seven runners (4.8%) developed asymptomatic EAH. While running, the athletes consumed a total of (median and interquartile ranges) 6.9 (5.1-8.8) L over the 100 km distance, equal to 0.58 (0.41-0.79) L/h. Fluid intake correlated negatively and significantly with race time (r = -.50, P < .0001). Body mass decreased, plasma [Na+] remained unchanged, hematocrit and hemoglobin decreased, and urinary specific gravity increased. Plasma volume increased by 4.6 (-2.3 to 12.8) %. Change in body mass correlated with both postrace plasma [Na+] and Δ plasma [Na+]. Postrace plasma [Na+] correlated to Δ plasma [Na+]. Fluid intake was associated neither with postrace plasma [Na+] nor with Δ plasma [Na+]. Fluid intake was related to Δ body mass (r = .21, P = .012), but not to postrace body mass. Fluid intake showed no correlation to Δ plasma volume. Change in plasma volume was associated with postrace [Na+].

CONCLUSIONS

Incidences of EAH in 100 km ultra-marathoners were lower compared with reports on marathoners. Body mass decreased, plasma volume increased, and plasma [Na+] was maintained. Since fluid intake was related neither to Δ plasma volume nor to Δ plasma [Na+], we assume that factors other than fluid intake maintained body fluid homeostasis.

What is associated with race performance in male 100-km ultra-marathoners--anthropometry, training or marathon best time?

We investigated the associations of anthropometry, training, and pre-race experience with race time in 93 recreational male ultra-marathoners (mean age 44.6 years, s = 10.0; body mass 74.0 kg, s = 9.0; height 1.77 m, s = 0.06; body mass index 23.4 kg · m(-2), s = 2.0) in a 100-km ultra-marathon using bivariate and multivariate analysis. In the bivariate analysis, body mass index (r = 0.24), the sum of eight skinfolds (r = 0.55), percent body fat (r = 0.57), weekly running hours (r = -0.29), weekly running kilometres (r = -0.49), running speed during training (r = -0.50), and personal best time in a marathon (r = 0.72) were associated with race time. Results of the multiple regression analysis revealed an independent and negative association of weekly running kilometres and average speed in training with race time, as well as a significant positive association between the sum of eight skinfold thicknesses and race time. There was a significant positive association between 100-km race time and personal best time in a marathon. We conclude that both training and anthropometry were independently associated with race performance. These characteristics remained relevant even when controlling for personal best time in a marathon.

Factors related to successful completion of a 161-km ultramarathon

PURPOSE

Despite increased 161-km ultramarathon participation in recent years, little is known about those who pursue such an activity. This study surveyed entrants in two of the largest 161-km trail ultramarathon runs in North America to explore demographic characteristics and issues that affected race performance.

METHODS

All entries of the 2009 Western States Endurance Run and the Vermont 100 Endurance Race were invited to complete a postrace questionnaire.

RESULTS

There were 500 respondents among the 701 race entries (71.3% response). Finish time was found to have a significant (P ≤ .01) negative association with training volume and was generally directly associated with body mass index. Among nonfinishers, the primary reason for dropping out was nausea and/or vomiting (23.0%). Finishers compared with nonfinishers were more likely (P ≤ .02) to report blisters (40.1% vs 17.3%), muscle pain (36.5% vs 20.1%), and exhaustion (23.1% vs 13.7%) as adversely affecting race performance, but nausea and/or vomiting was similar between groups (36.8% vs 39.6%). Nausea and/or vomiting was no more common among those using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), those participating in the event with higher ambient temperatures, those with a lower training volume, or those with less experience at finishing 161-km races. Overall use of NSAIDs was high, and greater (P = .006) among finishers (60.5%) than nonfinishers (46.4%).

CONCLUSIONS

From this study, we conclude that primary performance-limiting issues in 161-km ultramarathons include nausea and/or vomiting, blisters, and muscle pain, and there is a disturbingly high use of NSAIDs in these events.

Anthropometric and training variables related to half-marathon running performance in recreational female runners

The relationship between skin-fold thickness and running has been investigated in distances ranging from 100 m to the marathon distance (42.195 km), with the exclusion of the half-marathon distance (21.0975 km). We investigated the association between anthropometric variables, prerace experience, and training variables with race time in 42 recreational, nonprofessional, female half-marathon runners using bi- and multivariate analysis. Body weight (r, 0.60); body mass index (r, 0.48); body fat percentage (r, 0.56); pectoral (r, 0.61), mid-axilla (r, 0.69), triceps (r, 0.49), subscapular (r, 0.61), abdominal (r, 0.59), suprailiac (r, 0.55), and medial calf (r, 0.53) skin-fold thickness; mean speed of the training sessions (r, -0.68); and personal best time in a half-marathon (r, 0.69) correlated with race time after bivariate analysis. Body weight (P = 0.0054), pectoral skin-fold thickness (P = 0.0068), and mean speed of the training sessions (P = 0.0041) remained significant after multivariate analysis. Mean running speed during training was related to mid-axilla (r, -0.31), subscapular (r, -0.38), abdominal (r, -0.44), and suprailiac (r, -0.41) skin-fold thickness, the sum of 8 skin-fold thicknesses (r, -0.36); and percent body fat (r, -0.31). It was determined that variables of both anthropometry and training were related to half-marathon race time, and that skin-fold thicknesses were associated with running speed during training. For practical applications, high running speed during training (as opposed to extensive training) may both reduce upper-body skin-fold thicknesses and improve race performance in recreational female half-marathon runners.

Predictor variables for a 100-km race time in male ultra-marathoners

In 169 male 100-km ultra-marathoners, the variables of anthropometry, training, and prerace experience, in order to predict race time, were investigated. In the bivariate analysis, age (r = .24), body mass (r = .20), Body Mass Index (r = .29), circumference of upper arm (r = .26), percent body fat (r = .45), mean weekly running hours (r = -.21), mean weekly running kilometers (r = -.43), mean speed in training (r=-.56), personal best time in a marathon (r = .65), the number of finished 100-km ultra-runs (r = .24), and the personal best time in a 100-km ultra-run (r = .72) were associated with race time. Stepwise multiple regression showed that training speed (p < .0001), mean weekly running kilometers (p < .0001), and age (p < .0001) were the best correlations for a 100-km race time. Performance may be predicted (n=169, r2 = .43) by the following equation: 100-km race time (min) = 1085.60 - 36.26 x (training speed, km/hr.) - 1.43 x (training volume, km/wk.) + 2.50 x (age, yr.). Overall, intensity of training might be more important for a successful outcome in a 100-km race than anthropometric attributes. Motivation to train intensely for such an ultra-endurance run should be explored as this might be the key for a successful finish.

No exercise-associated hyponatremia found in an observational field study of male ultra-marathoners participating in a 24-hour ultra-run

In a recent study of male ultra-marathoners who participated in a 161-km ultra-run, the prevalence of exercise-associated hyponatremia (EAH) was reported to be 50%, which is a considerably higher percentage than that seen in marathoners. We investigated the prevalence of EAH in male ultra-marathoners competing in a 24-hour run held in Basel, Switzerland. Body weight, hematocrit levels, plasma volume, plasma sodium concentration, urine specific gravity, and fluid intake were recorded in 15 male ultra-marathoners (mean age ± standard deviation [SD], 46.7 [5.8] years; plasma sodium, 71.1 [6.8] kg; height, 1.76 [0.07] m; body weight, 23.1 [1.84] kg/m(2)). Plasma sodium was measured at 135.3 (2.8) mmol/L before the race and remained unchanged at 135.4 (3.6) mmol/L after the race. The competitors consumed a total of 15.1 (5.1) L during the race, equal to 0.62 (0.21) L/hour. Fluid intake correlated to the mean running speed (r = -0.87; P = 0.0001). Body weight decreased significantly (P = 0.0009) by 2.2 kg. Hematocrit remained unchanged, and urine specific gravity increased significantly (P = 0.0005). Plasma volume increased by 4.9% (15.8%). Changes in body weight showed no association with post-race plasma sodium. The normal resting value should be 140 mmol/L so that a decrease of 5 mmol/L is described as EAH. Because the starting plasma sodium in this study was 135 mmol/L, it is not possible to define EAH as a value that is < 135 mmol/L. Instead, the correct definition should be a plasma sodium concentration of 130 mmol/L (ie, 5 mmol/L below the normal resting value). Following this definition, it was determined that no athlete developed EAH in this 24-hour run.

Low prevalence of exercise-associated hyponatremia in male 100 km ultra-marathon runners in Switzerland

We investigated the prevalence of exercise-associated hyponatremia (EAH) in 145 male ultra-marathoners at the '100-km ultra-run' in Biel, Switzerland. Changes in body mass, urinary specific gravity, haemoglobin, haematocrit, plasma [Na(+)], and plasma volume were determined. Seven runners (4.8%) developed asymptomatic EAH. Body mass, haematocrit and haemoglobin decreased, plasma [Na(+)] remained unchanged and plasma volume increased. Δ body mass correlated with both post race plasma [Na(+)] and Δ plasma [Na(+)]. Δ plasma volume was associated with post race plasma [Na(+)]. The athletes consumed 0.65 (0.30) L/h; fluid intake correlated significantly and negatively (r = -0.50, p < 0.0001) to race time. Fluid intake was neither associated with post race plasma [Na(+)] nor with Δ plasma [Na(+)], but was related to Δ body mass. To conclude, the prevalence of EAH was low at ~5% in these male 100 km ultra-marathoners. EAH was asymptomatic and would not have been detected without the measurement of plasma [Na(+)].