Effect of practice and training in spatial skills on embedded figures scores of males and females

Differences in Sex and Curricula on Learning the Group Embedded Figures Test

The authors demonstrate that learning occurs on the Group Embedded Figures Test in that scores on the second section of the test are higher, on average, than scores on the first section of the test. They further report that performance differentials between men and women are not evident for either absolute performance or improvement in performance when differences in curriculum are taken into account.

Effects of Cognitive and Exemplar Modeling on Field Dependence-Independence

This study examined the effects of two modeling procedures on subjects' performance of cognitive tasks. 57 female and 14 male participants were exposed to one of three conditions. A Cognitive Modeling group viewed a videotape in which examples of embedded figures were presented, accompanied by verbalization of strategies relevant to task performance. An Exemplar Modeling group observed the same examples without verbalization of strategies. A Control group did not view a videotape. The Cognitive Modeling group subsequently outperformed the Exemplar Modeling group which in turn outperformed the Control group on the Embedded Figures Test (a measure of field dependence-independence). Subjects in the Cognitive Modeling group were also able to identify more task-relevant strategies than either the Exemplar or Control groups on a post-experimental questionnaire. These gains did not generalize to performance on Progressive Matrices.

Selected Bibliography on Cognitive Styles: 1978-1982

A computer search, using descriptors from the thesauri of the Educational Resource Information Center (ERIC) and from the Psychological Abstracts, yielded a total of 159 published references on various cognitive styles. This endeavor spanned a 4-yr. period from 1978 to 1982. An organizational structure was imposed on this listing to facilitate meaningful retrieval. References were alphabetically and chronologically grouped under relevant subject headings.

Understanding of Horizontality in College Women: Effects of Two Training Procedures

Previous research has shown that many college females cannot correctly represent the horizontal on the Piagetian water-level task. The present study focuses on some possible reasons for this and attempts to determine if performance on the task can be modified. Sixty-eight college women were tested on the water-level task and on related measures of verticality, spatial relations, and cognitive style. Those failing the water-level task (N = 49) were assigned to one of three conditions: (a) physical knowledge training, (b) Euclidean reference training, or (c) a control group, and then were retested on the same measures. As predicted, both training groups improved on the water-level task while the control group did not. However, contrary to predictions, reference training did not show transfer to related measures. The results have implications for understanding the role of experience in spatial abilities.

Sex, Age, and Training Modulate Spatial Memory in the Rhesus Monkey (Macaca mulatta)

The authors tested 90 rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) on a task of spatial memory, the spatial Delayed Recognition Span Test. The results showed that performance declined significantly with age, males had greater scores than females, and the rate of apparent decline with age was greater in males than in females. Both working and reference memory declined with age, but only working memory showed sex differences. The authors compared these data with that of 22 monkeys who were trained on a simpler version of the task before formal testing. Training had no effect on males but dramatically improved working memory in young females. The results confirm a male advantage in spatial working memory at a young age and confirm a greater decline with age in males than in females. It is important to note that prior training completely reverses the deficits of young females.

Performance of soccer players on tests of field dependence/independence and soccer-specific decision-making tests

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of the performance of male amateur soccer players on tests of field dependence/independence and soccer-specific decision-making tests. The relationships between the participants' (N = 14) accuracy, and speed of decision, on simple and complex soccer decision-making tests; scores on Parts B or C of the Group Embedded Figures Test under normal conditions: scores on Parts B or C of the Group Embedded Figures Test when timed; and time taken to complete the timed condition of the Group Embedded Figures Test were examined. There were no significant correlations between performance on the soccer specific tests and the tests of field dependence/independence.

The relation between sign language skill and spatial visualization ability: mental rotation of three-dimensional objects

The present study was designed to ascertain whether a relationship exists between the experience of an individual in American Sign Language (ASL) and performance on the Mental Rotations Test. 51 women were divided into three groups on the basis of self-reported ASL skill (years of experience). All subjects then completed the Mental Rotations Test, a paper-and-pencil test of spatial ability. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory was also administered to examine possible apprehension about evaluation. Significant differences in scores on mental rotations were found, with 18 experienced signers scoring significantly higher than either mean of the two less experienced groups (ns = 16 and 17). It appears that people experienced in ASL perform better on the Mental Rotations Test. No evidence for a difference in anxiety related to the amount of experience a person had in ASL was found.

Cognitive styles and learning disabilities

Research is reviewed relating the cognitive style dimensions of field dependence and reflection-impulsivity to underachievement, process deficits (minimal brain dysfunction), and hyperactivity. In general, field independence and a reflective cognitive style are associated with better performance. The importance of modifying the learner's cognitive style and matching the learning environment to the learner's cognitive style also are examined.