Investigation of the contextual interference effect in the manipulation of the motor parameter of over-all force

High contextual interference improves retention in motor learning: systematic review and meta-analysis

The effect of practice schedule on retention and transfer has been studied since the first publication on contextual interference (CI) in 1966. However, strongly advocated by scientists and practitioners, the CI effect also aroused some doubts. Therefore, our objective was to review the existing literature on CI and to determine how it affects retention in motor learning. We found 1255 articles in the following databases: Scopus, EBSCO, Web of Science, PsycINFO, ScienceDirect, supplemented by the Google Scholar search engine. We screened full texts of 294 studies, of which 54 were included in the meta-analysis. In the meta-analyses, two different models were applied, i.e., a three-level mixed model and random-effects model with averaged effect sizes from single studies. According to both analyses, high CI has a medium beneficial effect on the whole population. These effects were statistically significant. We found that the random practice schedule in laboratory settings effectively improved motor skills retention. On the contrary, in the applied setting, the beneficial effect of random practice on the retention was almost negligible. The random schedule was more beneficial for retention in older adults (large effect size) and in adults (medium effect size). In young participants, the pooled effect size was negligible and statically insignificant.

Motor learning in golf-a systematic review

Golf is a sport that consists of complex movement skills that need to be executed with utmost precision. Consequently, motor skill learning plays a crucial role in golf, and large numbers of studies address various methods of motor learning. In the present review, we give a systematic overview of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) on motor learning of golf-specific motor skills. Three electronic databases were searched for RCTs looking at the effect of at least one learning method on performance in a golf-specific motor task. We grouped the studies depending on the learning strategies "cognitive training", "practice scheduling", "augmented feedback", "implicit and explicit learning" and "focus of attention". Fifty-two RCTs met the eligibility criteria and were included in the systematic review. Superior methods within their respective strategies were an external focus of attention and increasing contextual interference, as well as errorless learning. For "cognitive training" and "augmented feedback", no single method can be considered the most favorable. The overall biggest limitations were the lack of statistical power for more than half of the RCTs, and the fact that most studies of the present review investigated simple putting tasks in novices only. Although we have shown superiority of specific learning methods, transferability of the recommendations that can be derived from simple golf tasks in novices to sport-specific tasks in advanced players still has to be demonstrated and require study designs with the intention to provide practical recommendations for coaches and athletes in the sport of golf.

Learner-adapted practice promotes skill transfer in unskilled adults learning the basketball set shot

The current study used a complex, sport-specific movement skill to explore the effects of a win-shift/lose-stay practice schedule on learning and compared its effectiveness with that of blocked and random practice schedules. Thirty-six adults (24.9 ± 3.3 years) were assigned to blocked, random and learner-adapted training groups. Each participant performed 360 trials of the basketball set shot from multiple locations across six practice sessions. For the learner-adapted group, switching between task variations was performance-contingent; switching between shooting locations occurred only following a successful shot. Shooting success was calculated as the percentage of successful shots performed, and measured during pre-acquisition (i.e. baseline), acquisition (i.e. practice) and post-acquisition (i.e. retention and transfer). Despite scoring less shots throughout practice compared to baseline testing, the learner-adapted group showed a significant improvement for shooting success in transfer (d = 1.02). Blocked practice demonstrated significant improvements for shooting success in immediate retention (d = 1.83), delayed retention (d = 1.69) and transfer (d = 1.39). Random practice significantly improved shooting success in both immediate (d = 1.03) and delayed retention (d = 0.81). The current findings highlight that performance during practice does not necessarily represent the permanency and adaptability of skill learning. The implications of the findings and their practical applications are discussed in the context of practice scheduling during learning of a sports skill.

Contextual Interference: A Meta-Analytic Study

A meta-analysis of the contextual interference effect produced 139 estimates of effect sizes from 61 studies. The average overall effect size was .38. The effect size for basic research (.57) was significantly different from applied research (.19). Significant differences were also obtained between the effect sizes for adults (.50) and those for younger learners (.10). Power for retention and transfer scores was not significantly different. The overall mean power of the studies reviewed was .43.

Nominal and functional task difficulty in skill acquisition: Effects on performance in two tests of transfer

The influence of nominal and functional task difficulty during the acquisition of a motor skill was examined in two tests of transfer of learning. The task involved a ballistic, target-directed, finger action. Nominal task difficulty was defined as the distance of the target from the home position. Functional task difficulty was created by manipulating the progression of target distances during practice. Based on the challenge point framework (Guadagnoli & Lee, 2004), we predicted that practice with a set of targets farther away from the performer would benefit from less functional task difficulty, while practice with a closer set of targets would benefit from more functional task difficulty. In single-task transfer tests, learners who practiced using the high nominal task difficulty targets benefitted in terms of persistence of performance over time. In dual-task transfer tests, groups with an intermediate combined (nominal and functional) task difficulty performed with greater persistence over time on tests of transfer than those who practiced with the highest or lowest combined difficulty. Together these findings suggest that the influences of nominal and functional task difficulty during acquisition are weighted differentially depending upon the transfer test context. The challenge point framework does not accurately capture this complex relationship in its current form.

Evidence for biomechanics and motor learning research improving golf performance

The aim of this review was to determine how the findings of biomechanics and motor control/learning research may be used to improve golf performance. To be eligible, the biomechanics and motor learning studies had to use direct (ball displacement and shot accuracy) or indirect (clubhead velocity and clubface angle) golf performance outcome measures. Biomechanical studies suggested that reducing the radius path of the hands during the downswing, increasing wrist torque and/or range of motion, delaying wrist motion to late in the downswing, increasing downswing amplitude, improving sequential acceleration of body parts, improving weight transfer, and utilising X-factor stretch and physical conditioning programmes can improve clubhead velocity. Motor learning studies suggested that golf performance improved more when golfers focused on swing outcome or clubhead movement rather than specific body movements. A distributed practice approach involving multiple sessions per week of blocked, errorless practice may be best for improving putting accuracy of novice golfers, although variable practice may be better for skilled golfers. Video, verbal, or a combination of video and verbal feedback can increase mid-short iron distance in novice to mid-handicap (hcp) golfers. Coaches should not only continue to critique swing technique but also consider how the focus, structure, and types of feedback for practice may alter learning for different groups of golfers.

Chunking and compound cueing of movement sequences: learning, retention, and transfer

When teaching a complex sequence, the sequence is often chunked into components; however, this strategy may not always benefit learning, but may be detrimental. The hypothesis is that this occurs because chunking deprives learners of compound cues that could aid recall. To test this, participants learned 9-item movement sequences, either as three 3-item chunks or as one 9-item series. To undermine compound cueing, some sequences had several movements in common. Learning a sequence in chunks impaired motor skill acquisition only when participants could have exploited compound cues; it also led participants to adopt an alternative recall strategy, which transferred to novel sequences even though this was detrimental to recall.

Neural correlate of the contextual interference effect in motor learning: a kinematic analysis

The contextual interference (CI) effect affirms that learning is enhanced when interference during practice is high, such as when participants practice multiple tasks in a random order. Previous research showed a distinct response in the cortical motor (CM) regions of participants performing under high CI practice conditions compared with low CI conditions. Specifically, there was increased corticomotor activity in a high CI condition when participants practiced 3 arm tasks, each with specific spatial and temporal requirements. Using disruptive transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), the authors' purpose was to determine whether CM is preferentially processing the spatial, temporal, or both parameters of the task during high CI practice. Participants were randomized to 1 of 6 practice conditions derived from 3 stimulation conditions (no TMS, TMS, sham TMS) and 2 CI conditions (blocked [low CI] and random [high CI]). The authors measured performance accuracy in movement timing (temporal) and amplitude (spatial) across practice and no-stimulation recall phases. TMS perturbation deterred learning of movement timing under random, but not blocked, practice order; the authors did not observe this in spatial parameter learning. The authors' data suggest that increased corticomotor activity during high CI practice may reflect preferential processing of the temporal parameter of the task.

Neural Substrates of Contextual Interference during Motor Learning Support a Model of Active Preparation

When individuals acquire new skills, initial performance is typically better and tasks are judged to be easier when the tasks are segregated and practiced by block, compared to when different tasks are randomly intermixed in practice. However, subsequent skill retention is better for a randomly practiced group, an effect known as contextual interference (CI). The present study examined the neural substrates of CI using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Individuals learned a set of three 4-element sequences with the left hand according to a block or random practice schedule. Behavioral retest for skill retention confirmed the presence of a typical CI effect with the random group outperforming the block group. Using a go/no-go fMRI paradigm, sequence preparation during the premovement study period was separated from movement execution. Imaging data for the two groups were compared for the first 1/3 and final 1/3 of training trials. Toward the end of training, behavioral performance between the two groups was similar, although the random group would later display a performance advantage on retention testing. During study time, the random group showed greater activity in sensorimotor and premotor regions compared to the block group. These areas are associated with motor preparation, sequencing, and response selection. This pattern of recruitment is consistent with the hypothesis that CI benefits in a sequencing task are due to improved capacity to actively prepare motor responses.

Contextual interference: single task versus multi-task learning

This experiment examined contextual interference in producing a bimanual coordination pattern of 90 degree angle relative phase. Acquisition, retention, and transfer performance were compared in a single-task control group and groups that performed 2 tasks in either a blocked or random presentation. Surprisingly, acquisition data revealed that both the random and control groups outperformed the blocked group. Retention data showed a typical CI effect for performance variability, with the random group outperforming the blocked group. Neither the random nor blocked groups outperformed the control group, suggesting interference of a second task may be as beneficial to learning as extra practice on the initial task. No group effects were found during transfer performance. Results suggest that random practice is beneficial for learning only one task.