Detection and Genotyping Study of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in Sheep and Goats in East-central China

Occurrence and Phylogenetic Analysis of Zoonotic Enteropathogenic Protist Parasites in Asymptomatic Domestic Ruminants from Portugal

Enteropathogenic parasites are of significant concern for public health due to their zoonotic potential and their impact on human and animal health. In this study, we investigated their occurrence and characterized these enteropathogens in asymptomatic domestic ruminants from Portugal. A total of 302 stool samples were collected from cattle (n = 166), sheep (n = 73), and goats (n = 63) in various regions of Portugal and tested for Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, Enterocytozoon bieneusi, Blastocystis sp., and Balantioides coli by PCR. The occurrence of Cryptosporidium spp. was found to be 12.7% (8/63, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 5.65-23.5) in goats; however, no sample was found to be positive for Cryptosporidium spp. in cattle and sheep. For E. bieneusi, 6.35% (4/63; 95%CI: 1.76-15.47) of goats were found to be positive; however, no cattle or sheep were found to be positive. Blastocystis sp. was found in sheep (9.59%; 7/73; 95% [CI]: 0.394-18.76) and goats (12.70%; 8/63; 95% [CI]: 5.65-23.50) but none was found in cattle. No positive results for G. duodenalis or B. coli were detected in this study. This study provides essential baseline information for understanding the silent shedding and epidemiology of these enteropathogens in Portugal, contributing to overall livestock health and related occupational safety. Raising awareness among consumers, veterinarians, and farm owners is crucial to minimize the risk of transmission and promote effective disease control strategies.

Molecular Characterization of Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Escherichia coli in Dairy Goat Kids with Diarrhea in Partial Regions of Shaanxi Province, China

Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Escherichia coli are important diarrheal pathogens threatening the health of humans and various animals. Goats, especially pre-weaned goat kids, that carry these pathogens are important reservoirs related to human infection. In the present study, PCR-based sequencing techniques were applied to characterize Cryptosporidium spp., G. duodenalis, E. bieneusi and E. coli in 202 fecal samples of diarrheal kids for Guanzhong dairy goats from five locations in Shaanxi Province. The positive rates of Cryptosporidium spp., G. duodenalis, E. bieneusi and E. coli were 37.6% (76/202), 16.3% (33/202), 55.4% (112/202) and 78.7% (159/202) in these goat kids, respectively. Co-infection of two to four pathogens was found in 114 of 202 fecal samples. Significant differences (p < 0.001) in the positive rates of Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis were found among locations and age groups. Furthermore, two Cryptosporidium species (C. parvum and C. xiaoi), two G. duodenalis assemblages (E and A), nine E. bieneusi genotypes (CHG3, CHG1, BEB6, CHG5, CHG2, SX1, CHG28, COS-II and CD6) and two E. coli pathotypes (EPEC and EHEC) were identified. As for Cryptosporidium, two (IIdA19G1 and IIdA19G2) and two (XXIIIa and XXIIIg) subtypes were recognized in samples positive for C. parvum and C. xiaoi, respectively. A phylogenetic analysis based on the ITS locus of E. bieneusi indicated that all nine genotypes of E. bieneusi identified in this study belonged to the group 2. Four virulence factors (ehxA, eae, stx2 and stx1) of EPEC and EHEC were found in E. coli strains. Collectively, this study explored the colonization frequency of Cryptosporidium spp., G. duodenalis, E. bieneusi and E. coli in diarrheal kids of Guanzhong dairy goats in Shaanxi Province and expanded our understanding of the genetic composition and zoonotic potential of these pathogens in goats.

Occurrence and Genotypic Identification of Blastocystis spp., Enterocytozoon bieneusi, and Giardia duodenalis in Leizhou Black Goats in Zhanjiang City, Guangdong Province, China

Blastocystis spp., Enterocytozoon bieneusi, and Giardia duodenalis are three common zoonotic intestinal parasites that cause severe diarrhea and enteric diseases. Leizhou black goats are characterized by a high reproductive rate, fast growth, and good meat quality, making them one of the pre-eminent goat breeds in China. Goats are reportedly common reservoirs of these three intestinal pathogens, but no information on their prevalence or genotypic distributions in black goats in Guangdong Province, China, is available. A total of 226 fecal samples were collected from goats in Zhanjiang city and genomic DNA was extracted from them. The presence of the three pathogens was detected using nested PCR targeting the sequences encoding SSU rRNA (Blastocystis spp.), the internal transcribed spacer of rRNA (ITS; E. bieneusi), as well as beta-giardin, glutamate dehydrogenase, and triosephosphate isomerase (G. duodenalis). All PCR products were sequenced to determine the species and genotypes of the organisms. The total prevalence rates of Blastocystis spp., E. bieneusi, and G. duodenalis were 33.63% (76/226), 17.70% (40/226), and 24.78% (56/226), respectively. Four subtypes of Blastocystis spp. were detected: ST5 (n = 6), ST10 (n = 50), ST14 (n = 14), and ST21 (n = 6). Among them, ST10 was the dominant genotype, accounting for 65.79% of strains, followed by the genotypes ST14 (18.42%), zoonotic ST5 (7.89%), and ST21 (7.89%). Four genotypes of E. bieneusi were detected: CHG3 (n = 32), CM21 (n = 4), CHG1 (n = 2), and ET-L2 (n = 2). Among these, CHG3 was the dominant genotype. Assemblage E (n = 54) and concurrent assemblages A and E (n = 2) were identified in the G. duodenalis-positive goats using multilocus genotyping. Blastocystis spp., E. bieneusi, and G. duodenalis infections were common in Leizhou black goats, all of which have zoonotic genotypes, indicating the potential risk of zoonotic transmission. Our results provide basic data for the prevention and control of these three intestinal pathogens. Further studies are required to better understand their genetic characteristics and zoonotic potential in Guangdong Province.

First report on the molecular detection of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in livestock and wildlife around Qinghai Lake in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau area, China

Enterocytozoon bieneusi is considered to be a microsporidial species of humans and animals in the worldwide. Limited data have been reported on the prevalence and genotypes of E. bieneusi in livestock and wild animals around Qinghai Lake in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau area, which shares water sources, grasslands, and harsh climate with high altitudes. In this study, fecal samples from 110 Tibetan sheep, 128 yaks, 227 wild birds, 96 blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) and 268 Przewalski's gazelle (Procapra przewalskii) around Qinghai Lake were collected, and then tested for E. bieneusi by PCR and sequencing analysis based on the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer. Among them, ten (9.09%) samples from Tibetan sheep, five (3.91%) from yaks, five (2.20%) from wild birds, one (1.04%) from wild blue sheep and two (0.75%) from Przewalski's gazelle were positive for E. bieneusi. Among sheep, there were nine E. bieneusi genotypes, including two known genotypes (BEB6 and J), and seven novel genotypes (named CHS18-CHS24). From yaks, four genotypes were identified, including two known ones (BEB4 and J) and two novel genotypes (named CHN15 and CHN16). While in wild animals, eight genotypes were found, including five different genotypes from wild bids, with three known genotypes (EbpC, J and NCF2), two novel genotypes (named CHWB1 and CHS24), and two genotypes from Przewalski's gazelle, with one known genotype J and one novel genotype CHWPG1, and one novel genotype CHWBS1 from blue sheep. According to the phylogenetic analysis, five isolates belonged to group 1, and the others were clustered into group 2. This study provides unique data on the epidemiological reports and potential risk factors for E. bieneusi in both domesticated livestock and wild animals around Qinghai Lake in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau area; it is important to better understand the molecular epidemiology and zoonotic potential of E. bieneusi in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau area.

Microbial Risks Caused by Livestock Excrement: Current Research Status and Prospects

Livestock excrement is a major pollutant yielded from husbandry and it has been constantly imported into various related environments. Livestock excrement comprises a variety of microorganisms including certain units with health risks and these microorganisms are transferred synchronically during the management and utilization processes of livestock excrement. The livestock excrement microbiome is extensively affecting the microbiome of humans and the relevant environments and it could be altered by related environmental factors as well. The zoonotic microorganisms, extremely zoonotic pathogens, and antibiotic-resistant microorganisms are posing threats to human health and environmental safety. In this review, we highlight the main feature of the microbiome of livestock excrement and elucidate the composition and structure of the repertoire of microbes, how these microbes transfer from different spots, and they then affect the microbiomes of related habitants as a whole. Overall, the environmental problems caused by the microbiome of livestock excrement and the potential risks it may cause are summarized from the microbial perspective and the strategies for prediction, prevention, and management are discussed so as to provide a reference for further studies regarding potential microbial risks of livestock excrement microbes.

Meta-analysis of the prevalence of Giardia duodenalis in sheep and goats in China

Giardia duodenum (G. duodenalis) can cause giardiasis and infect a variety of hosts. So far, there have been no detailed data regarding the positive rate of G. duodenalis in sheep and goats in China. Here, a systematic literature review was carried out to investigate the epidemiology of G. duodenalis in sheep and goats in China. To perform the meta-analysis, the databases CNKI, VIP, WanFang, PubMed, Web of science and ScienceDirect were employed for screening studies related to the prevalence of G. duodenalis in sheep and goats in China. The total prevalence of G. duodenalis in sheep and goats was estimated to be 7.00% (95% CI: 4.00-10.00). In the age subgroup, the prevalence of G. duodenalis in sheep and goats of >12 months (11.29%; 95% CI: 8.08-14.97) was higher than that in sheep and goats of ≤12 months (7.57%; 95% CI: 3.95-12.24). An analysis based on seasons showed that the prevalence of G. duodenalis in sheep and goats was higher in summer (11.90%; 95% CI: 0.50-35.05) than that in other seasons. The prevalence of G. duodenalis in sheep and goats after 2016 was 8.57% (95% CI: 5.34-11.79), which was higher than others. The highest prevalence of G. duodenalis in sheep and goats was 13.06% (95% CI: 6.26-19.86) recorded in Southwestern China. The prevalence of Giardia infection in sheep (7.28%; 95% CI: 2.30-14.73) was higher than that in goats (5.43%; 95% CI: 2.73-8.98). The NOAA's National Center for Environmental Information (https://gis.ncdc.noaa.gov/maps/ncei/cdo/monthly) was used to extract relevant geoclimatic data (latitude, longitude, elevation, temperature, precipitation, humidity, and climate). By analyzing the data of each subgroup, it was shown that region, genetype, and climate were potential risk factors for giardiasis prevalence in sheep and goats. Based on the analysis of common factors and geographical factors, it is recommended to strengthen effective management measures (e.g. ventilation and disinfection in warm and humid areas) and formulate relevant policies according to local conditions. Breeders should strengthen the detection of G. duodenalis in sheep and goats, customize corresponding control measures according to the diet and living habits of sheep and goats, and strengthen the protection of sheep and lamb calves, so as to reduce the incidence rate and reduce the economic loss of China's animal husbandry.

Molecular Identification and Genotyping of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in Sheep in Shanxi Province, North China

Enterocytozoon bieneusi is a fungus-like protist that can cause malabsorption and diarrhea in sheep, other animals, and humans, threatening the development of animal husbandry and public health. To date, there are no data about the prevalence and genotypes of E. bieneusi in sheep in Shanxi Province, North China. In this study, 492 fecal samples were collected from sheep in three representative counties in northern, central, and southern Shanxi Province. Nested PCR amplification was performed to detect the prevalence and identify the genotypes of E. bieneusi based on the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the rRNA gene. Overall, 168 of 492 examined samples were E. bieneusi-positive, with a prevalence of 34.2% (168/492). Significant differences in the prevalence of E. bieneusi were observed among the three sampled regions (χ2 = 95.859, df = 2, p < 0.001), but the differences in E. bieneusi prevalence were not statistically significant between different genders and age groups (p > 0.05). Sequence analysis showed that four known genotypes (BEB6, COS-I, CHS7, and CHC8) and one novel genotype (named SY-1) were identified. BEB6 was the prevalent genotype found within the three counties. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the five genotypes observed in this study belong to Group 2. The present study reported the presence and genotypes of E. bieneusi infection in sheep in Shanxi Province for the first time, which enriches the knowledge of the genetic diversity of E. bieneusi and provides baseline data for the prevention and control of E. bieneusi infection in animals and humans.

A Perspective on the Molecular Identification, Classification, and Epidemiology of Enterocytozoon bieneusi of Animals

The microsporidian Enterocytozoon bieneusi is an obligate intracellular pathogen that causes enteric disease (microsporidiosis) in humans and has been recorded in a wide range of animal species worldwide. The transmission of E. bieneusi is direct and likely occurs from person to person and from animal to person via the ingestion of spores in water, food, or the environment. The identification of E. bieneusi is usually accomplished by molecular means, typically using the sequence of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of nuclear ribosomal DNA. Currently, ~820 distinct genotypes of E. bieneusi have been recorded in at least 210 species of vertebrates (mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians) or invertebrates (insects and mussels) in more than 50 countries. In this chapter, we provide a perspective on (1) clinical aspects of human microsporidiosis; (2) the genome and DNA markers for E. bieneusi as well as molecular methods for the specific and genotypic identification of E. bieneusi; (3) epidemiological aspects of E. bieneusi of animals and humans, with an emphasis on the genotypes proposed to be zoonotic, human-specific, and animal-specific; and (4) future research directions to underpin expanded molecular studies to better understand E. bieneusi and microsporidiosis.

Molecular Detection and Genotyping of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in Black Goats (Capra hircus) in Yunnan Province, Southwestern China

Simple Summary

Enterocytozoon bieneusi is one of the most common parasites in human and animals, and a threat to public health. So far, no data are available for E. bieneusi prevalence and genotypes in black goats in Yunnan Province, Southwestern China. Therefore, the objective of this study was to detect the prevalence and genotypes of E. bieneusi by examining 907 fecal samples collected from 5 counties in Yunnan Province. Ninety-three fecal samples (10.3%) were E. bieneusi-positive by PCR amplification. Four new genotypes and 11 known genotypes were identified, and all genotypes considered to be the zoonotic potential. Phylogenetic analysis showed that all of these genotypes were allocated into the zoonotic groups of E. bieneusi indicating its zoonotic potential. These results indicated that effective strategies and measures must be taken to prevent and control E. bieneusi transmission to other animals and humans.

Abstract

Enterocytozoon bieneusi is a fungus-like protist that can parasitize in the intestines of humans and various animals causing a threat to public health. However, there has been no data for E. bieneusi prevalence and genotypes in black goats in Yunnan Province, Southwestern China. In this study, 907 fecal samples were collected from black goats in 5 counties from Yunnan Province. The prevalence and genotypes of E. bieneusi were examined by nested PCR amplification targeting the nuclear internal transcribed spacer (ITS). Multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) was used to further examine the potential occurrence of genetic segregation. The overall prevalence of E. bieneusi in black goats in Yunnan Province was 10.3% (93/907). Statistical analysis revealed that E. bieneusi prevalence was significantly associated with the region, age and gender of black goats (p < 0.001). Four new genotypes (CYG-1, CYG-2, CYG-3, CYG-4) and 11 known genotypes (CHG1, CHG2, CHG3, CHG5, CHG28, J, D, BEB6, Wildboar3, CD6, SDD1) of E. bieneusi were identified. At the microsatellite and minisatellite loci, 15, 2, 17, and 33 sequences were obtained, respectively, forming one new multi-locus genotype (MLG27). Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all 15 genotypes were clustered into group 1 and group 2, with zoonotic potential. This is the first report of E. bieneusi prevalence and genotypes in black goats in Yunnan Province, China. Effective control strategies and measures should be taken to reduce the risk of E. bieneusi transmission between black goats, other animals, and humans.

Molecular epidemiology and genotype/subtype distribution of Blastocystis sp., Enterocytozoon bieneusi, and Encephalitozoon spp. in livestock: concern for emerging zoonotic infections

Intestinal parasitic infections have high prevalence rate in many regions especially in developing countries. The aim of this study was to determine the presence and genotype/subtype of some intestinal protozoa in livestock in Iran. Stool samples were collected from cattle, sheep, chickens, and horses. The presence of targeted parasites was evaluated using real-time PCR. Genotyping/subtyping of positive samples was characterized using sequencing of the ITS and barcoding region, respectively. Blastocystis sp., 27.7% (48/173) and Enterocytozoon bieneusi 26.0% (45/173) were the most frequent protozoa followed by Encephalitozoon spp., 0.57% (1/173). Cryptosporidium spp. were not detected among samples. Encephalitozoon spp., was detected only in chickens 2.2% (1/45). A statistically correlation was seen between animals and the prevalence of targeted protozoa. E. bieneusi genotypes I (9/38; 23.68%), BEB6 (22/38; 57.89%), D (6/38; 15.79%), and horse1 (1/38; 2.63%) were detected among samples. A statistically significant correlation was seen between the genotypes and animals (P ≤ 0.05). Blastocystis sp., ST1 (1/45; 2.22%), ST5 3/45; 6.66%), ST7 (1/45; 2.22%), ST10 (24/45; 53.33%), and ST14 (16/45; 35.55%) were characterized among samples. There was no significant correlation between certain subtypes and animals (P = 0.173). The presence of zoonotic potential genotypes of E. bieneusi in animals and zoonotic potential subtypes ST1 and ST7 among our samples provide a clue about the transmission dynamic of E. bieneusi and Blastocystis sp. between animals–animals and humans–animals.

The global molecular epidemiology of microsporidia infection in sheep and goats with focus on Enterocytozoon bieneusi: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Microsporidia is a zoonotic pathogen with health consequences in immunocompromised patients. Small ruminants are a potential reservoir of microsporidia for humans in their vicinity. Hence, we aimed to evaluate the molecular prevalence of microsporidian infections with emphasis on Enterocytozoon bieneusi genotypes among sheep and goats at a global scale through systematic review and meta-analysis approach.

METHODS

The standard protocol of preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were followed. Eligible prevalence studies on small ruminant microsporidiosis, published from 1 January 2000 until 15 April 2021 were gathered using systematic literature search in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar databases. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied. The point estimates and 95% confidence intervals were calculated using a random-effects model. The variance between studies (heterogeneity) was quantified by I² index.

RESULTS

In total, 25 articles (including 34 datasets) were included for final meta-analysis. The pooled molecular prevalence of microsporidia in sheep and goats was estimated to be 17.4% (95% CI: 11.8-25%) and 16% (95% CI: 11.2-22.4%), respectively. Likewise, the overall prevalence of E. bieneusi was estimated to be 17.4% (95% CI: 11.8-25%) for sheep and 16.3% (95% CI: 11.3-22.8%) for goats. According to internal transcribed spacer (ITS) gene analysis, E. bieneusi with genotypes BEB6 (15 studies) and COS-1 (nine studies) in sheep, and CHG3 (six studies) and BEB6 (five studies) in goats were the highest reported genotypes.

CONCLUSION

The present results highlight the role of sheep and goats as reservoir hosts for human-infecting microsporidia. Therefore, this global estimate could be beneficial on preventive and control measures.

Diagnosis and molecular typing of Enterocytozoon bieneusi: the significant role of domestic animals in transmission of human microsporidiosis

Enterocytozoon bieneusi is an obligate intracellular fungus-like parasite with high genetic diversity among mammalian and avian hosts. Based on polymorphism analysis of the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS), nearly 500 genotypes were identified within E. bieneusi. Those genotypes form several genetic groups that exhibit phenotypic differences in host specificity and zoonotic potential and probably have varying public health implications. Some of the genotypes in Group 1 (e.g., D, EbpC, and Type IV) and Group 2 (e.g., BEB4, BEB6, I, and J) are the most common ones that infect a variety of hosts including humans and thus are of public health importance. By contrast, those genotypes in other genetic groups (Groups 3-11) are mostly restricted to the hosts from which they were originally isolated, which would have unknown or limited impacts on public health. Advances on diagnosis and molecular typing of E. bieneusi are introduced in this review. Genotype distribution pattern of E. bieneusi in major domestic animal groups (pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, cats, and dogs), the role of those animals in zoonotic transmission of microsporidiosis, and food and water as potential vehicles for transmission are interpreted here as well. This review highlights the importance of including more genetic or epidemiological data obtained in the same geographical areas and using more reliable genetic markers to analyze the actual extent of host specificity in E. bieneusi, for the purpose of fully appreciating zoonotic risks of those domestic animals in close contacts with men and enhancing our understanding of the modes of transmission.

Intestinal microsporidia infection among cat owners and non-pet owners in Iran: a case-control study

Microsporidia is a group of spore-forming microorganisms with zoonotic potential. This study aimed to compare intestinal microsporidia infections in cat owners and non-pet owners. In total, 210 fecal samples were collected from indoor cats, cat owners, and non-pet owners. DNA extraction was performed and the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) gene was amplified. To characterize the genotypes, the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) fragment was amplified and sequenced. The phylogenetic trees were drawn to evaluate the relationship among Enterocytozoon bieneusi isolates. Two (2.9%) and one (1.4%) fecal samples from cat owners and one (1.4%) and two (2.9%) fecal samples from non-pet owners were positive for E. bieneusi and Encephalitozoon intestinalis, respectively. E. bieneusi was detected in two cat samples (2.9%). Same infection was not seen between infected cats and their owners. There was no significant difference between the prevalence rate of microsporidia among the cat owners and non-pet owners. Indeed, the genotypes L and type IV were seen in cats, while the genotype D was only detected in human. In this study, E. bieneusi and E. intestinalis were more prevalent among the cat owners and non-pet owners, respectively. Indeed, the higher prevalence of E. bieneusi in cats and their owners might be resulted from the worldwide distribution of this species.

Prevalence and genotype distribution of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in farmed raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) in Shandong Province, eastern China

Enterocytozoon bieneusi is a common microsporidian species, which can infect humans and various species of animals. However, little is known about E. bieneusi prevalence and genotypes in farmed raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) in Shandong Province, China. In this study, a total of 356 fecal samples were collected from farmed raccoon dogs in Weihai, Weifang, and Yantai cities in Shandong Province, China. A total of 23 (6.5%) samples were E. bieneusi-positive by nested PCR amplification of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of ribosomal DNA. Statistical analysis showed that E. bieneusi prevalence in male raccoon dogs was higher than that in female raccoon dogs, and the highest E. bieneusi prevalence was detected in adult raccoon dogs. Sequence analysis revealed four known E. bieneusi genotypes (D, type IV, CHG1, and Peru8), and type IV (11/23) was the predominant genotype. The genotypes type IV, Peru8, and CHG1 were reported in raccoon dogs for the first time in China. Phylogenetic analysis showed that three human-pathogenic genotypes (D, type IV, and Peru8) were clustered into group 1, and the CHG1 belonged to group 2. These findings expand the current understanding of E. bieneusi prevalence and genotype distribution in raccoon dogs in China. Our study also shows that raccoon dogs are hosts for E. bieneusi belonging to several genotypes, including zoonotic ones, highlighting the possibility of transmission of this pathogen between raccoon dogs and humans.

Molecular Characterization and Phylogenetic Analysis of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in Lambs in Oromia Special Zone, Central Ethiopia

Enterocytozoon bieneusi is the most frequently diagnosed microsporidian species in humans and occurs in a wide range of animals. This study was conducted in Central Ethiopia to determine the prevalence and genotypes of E. bieneusi in lambs in order to evaluate their public health significance. Three hundred eighty nine fecal samples were collected and screened using a nested PCR targeting the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) of the ribosomal RNA gene. All positive PCR products were sequenced to determine the genotypes. E. bieneusi was found in 39 (10.03%) of the lambs. Differences in the infection rates among sex and age groups were not significant (P > 0.05). Five ITS genotypes belonging to three known genotypes BEB6, COS-I, and COS-II, and two novel genotypes (ET-L1 and ET-L2) were identified in lambs. All five genotypes identified in the present study clustered within cattle-specific Group 2 in the ITS phylogenetic tree. This first molecular detection and characterization of E. bieneusi in lambs in Ethiopia has identified the need for further studies in humans and other domestic animals in order to determine the public health significance of E. bieneusi in Ethiopia.

Molecular epidemiology of Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Encephalitozoon sp., among immunocompromised and immunocompetent subjects in Iran

Intestinal microsporidiosis is known as an opportunistic infection in immunocompromised patients. The current study aimed to investigate intestinal microsporidia infection in human subjects with/without immunodeficiency. Totally, 600 stool samples were collected from immunocompromised (254) and immunocompetent (346) subjects. DNA extraction was performed and the SSU rRNA and the ITS genes were amplified to detect and characterize microsporidia and the relevant genotypes. Phylogenetic trees were drawn using MEGA7 software to illustrate the correlation between isolates. From 600 enrolled subjects, 283 and 317 were male and female, respectively. The average age ± SD of all tested subjects was 28.85 ± 26.92. The results of PCR demonstrated the presence of E. bieneusi and Encephalitozoon sp., among 10/600 (1.67%) and 26/600 (4.33%) of samples, respectively. Accordingly, E. bieneusi was seen among 4/346 (1.15%), 1/53 (1.88%), 3/124 (2.42%), and 2/63 (3.17%), and Encephalitozoon sp., was detected from 17/346 (4.91%), 3/53 (5.36%), 4/124 (3.22%) and 2/63 (3.17%) of healthy subjects, RA patients, cancer patients, and transplantation recipients, respectively. Statistical significant correlation was not seen between the presence of microsporidia and age, gender, stool appearance, and geographical region. Molecular analysis showed that all E. bieneusi were the genotype D. Phylogenetic tree demonstrated no classification according to the presence/absence of immunodeficiency, geographical locations and presence of diarrhea. The high prevalence of Encephalitozoon sp., in comparison to E. bieneusi in this study suggested the importance of this genus alongside with E. bieneusi in Iran. In addition, predominance of the genotype D highlighted the wide distribution of this genotype in Iran.

PCR-Based Detection of Cryptosporidium spp. and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in Farm-Raised and Free-Ranging Geese (Anser anser f. domestica) From Hainan Province of China: Natural Infection Rate and the Species or Genotype Distribution

Cryptosporidium spp. and Enterocytozoon bieneusi are two important zoonotic pathogens that can infect humans and a broad range of animal hosts. However, few studies have been conducted to study infection of the two pathogens in domestic geese until now. The aims of the present study were to determine the prevalence of natural infection, and the species or genotype distribution of Cryptosporidium and E. bieneusi in farm-raised and free-ranging geese from Hainan Province of China. In total, 266 fecal samples of geese were collected (142 farm-raised and 124 free-ranging geese). Cryptosporidium spp. and E. bieneusi were identified by nested PCR and sequencing analysis of the SSU rRNA and the ITS region of the rRNA genes. A total of 4.1% (12/226) of the geese were positive for Cryptosporidium spp., with 0.7% identified in the farm-raised geese and 7.0% in the free-ranging geese. Two bird-adapted species/genotypes were identified: C. baileyi (n = 1) and Cryptosporidium goose genotype I (n = 11). Meanwhile, E. bieneusi was found in 13.9% (37/266) of geese, with 8.9% identified in the farm-raised and 21.8% in the free-ranging geese. Eleven genotypes of E. bieneusi were identified constituted with six known genotypes: D (n = 13), I (n = 5), CHG2 (n = 1), CHG3 (n = 5), and CHG5 (n = 1), and five novel genotypes named HNE-I to V (one each). All of the genotypes identified in the geese here belonged to zoonotic Groups 1 or 2. This study is the first to demonstrate the presence of Cryptosporidium spp. and E. bieneusi in domestic geese from Hainan, China, and provides baseline data that will be useful for controlling and preventing these pathogens in goose farms. The geese infected with E. bieneusi, but not with Cryptosporidium, should be considered potential public health threats.

Genotype identification and phylogenetic analysis of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in farmed black goats (Capra hircus) from China's Hainan Province

Enterocytozoon bieneusi is an important pathogen commonly found in humans and animals. Farmed animals with close contact to humans are important hosts of E. bieneusi. The role of goats in the transmission of E. bieneusi, however, remains unclear. In this study, 341 fresh fecal samples of black goats were collected from five locations in Hainan Province, China. Enterocytozoon bieneusi was identified and genotyped by sequences of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region. Phylogenetic analysis was performed by constructing a neighbor-joining tree of the ITS gene sequences. The average prevalence of E. bieneusi in black goats was 24.0% (82/341) with rates ranging from 6.3% (4/63) to 37.2% (32/86) across the locations (χ² = 17.252, p < 0.01). Eight genotypes of E. bieneusi were identified, including six known genotypes: CHG5 (n = 47); CHG3 (n = 23); CHG2 (n = 4); CM21 (n = 3); D (n = 2); and AHG1 (n = 1), and two novel genotypes termed HNG-I (n = 1) and HNG-II (n = 1). In the phylogenetic tree, genotype D was clustered into Group 1 and the other identified genotypes were included in Group 2. This represents the first report identifying E. bieneusi in black goats from Hainan Province, with a high prevalence and wide occurrence demonstrated. The two new genotypes identified provide additional insights into the genotypic variations in E. bieneusi. Due to the small percentage of zoonotic genotypes in these animals, there is minimal risk of zoonotic transmission of E. bieneusi.

Identification of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in goats and cattle in Thailand

Background

Enterocytozoon bieneusi has been increasingly reported to infect domestic animals and humans, with human infections primarily reported as zoonotic in origin. The aim of the present study was to determine the presence and genotype of E. bieneusi in humans and domestic animals in central Thailand by testing stool samples of 200 apparently healthy humans, 73 goats, 60 cattle and 65 pigs using nested-PCR/ sequence analysis based on the ITS region of SSU rRNA genes.

Results

E. bieneusi tested positive in 2 (1%) of the 200 stool samples collected from humans and 56 (28.3%) of the 198 stool samples collected from domestic animals. The highest prevalence of E. bieneusi was observed in pigs (39/65, 60%), followed by goats (14/73, 19.2%) and cattle (3/60, 5%). Seven novel E. bieneusi genotypes were identified, which were named GoatAYE1–4 and PigAYE1–3 and clustered in either zoonotic Group 1 or Group 2. Moreover, eleven previously described E. bieneusi genotypes were also identified (O, D, H, SX1, CHC8, CHG3, CS-10, SHZC1, LW1, WildBoar5, and EbpC). All novel genotypes exhibited zoonotic potential from a phylogenetic analysis of ITS region.

Conclusion

Our data showed that the prevalence of E. bieneusi is low in apparently healthy individuals and higher in pigs than cattle and goats. This study provides baseline data useful for controlling and preventing E. bieneusi infection in farm communities, where pigs and goats appear to be the major reservoir of E. bieneusi. The results of our study support the view that E. bieneusi is a zoonotic pathogen that should be considered a potential public health threat.