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Stirk WA, Bálint P, Široká J, Novák O, Rétfalvi T, Berzsenyi Z, Notterpek J, Varga Z, Maróti G, van Staden J, Strnad M, Ördög V. Comparison of plant biostimulating properties of Chlorella sorokiniana biomass produced in batch and semi-continuous systems supplemented with pig manure or acetate. J Biotechnol 2024; 381:27-35. [PMID: 38190851 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2024.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Revised: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/01/2024] [Indexed: 01/10/2024]
Abstract
Microalgae-derived biostimulants provide an eco-friendly biotechnology for improving crop productivity. The strategy of circular economy includes reducing biomass production costs of new and robust microalgae strains grown in nutrient-rich wastewater and mixotrophic culture where media is enriched with organic carbon. In this study, Chlorella sorokiniana was grown in 100 l bioreactors under sub-optimal conditions in a greenhouse. A combination of batch and semi-continuous cultivation was used to investigate the growth, plant hormone and biostimulating effect of biomass grown in diluted pig manure and in nutrient medium supplemented with Na-acetate. C. sorokiniana tolerated the low light (sum of PAR 0.99 ± 0.18 mol/photons/(m2/day)) and temperature (3.7-23.7° C) conditions to maintain a positive growth rate and daily biomass productivity (up to 149 mg/l/day and 69 mg/l/day dry matter production in pig manure and Na-acetate supplemented cultures respectively). The protein and lipid content was significantly higher in the biomass generated in batch culture and dilute pig manure (1.4x higher protein and 2x higher lipid) compared to the Na-acetate enriched culture. Auxins indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and 2-oxindole-3-acetic acid (oxIAA) and salicylic acid (SA) were present in the biomass with significantly higher auxin content in the biomass generated using pig manure (> 350 pmol/g DW IAA and > 84 pmol/g DW oxIAA) compared to cultures enriched with Na-acetate and batch cultures (< 200 pmol/g DW IAA and < 27 pmol/g DW oxIAA). No abscisic acid and jasmonates were detected. All samples had plant biostimulating activity measured in the mungbean rooting bioassay with the Na-acetate supplemented biomass eliciting higher rooting activity (equivalent to 1-2 mg/l IBA) compared to the pig manure (equivalent to 0.5-1 mg/l IBA) and batch culture (equivalent to water control) generated biomass. Thus C. sorokiniana MACC-728 is a robust new strain for biotechnology, tolerating low light and temperature conditions. The strain can adapt to alternative nutrient (pig manure) and carbon (acetate) sources with the generated biomass having a high auxin concentration and plant biostimulating activity detected with the mungbean rooting bioassay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy A Stirk
- Research Centre for Plant Growth and Development, School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, P/Bag X01, Scottsville 3209, South Africa.
| | - Péter Bálint
- Department of Plant Sciences, Albert Kázmér Mosonmagyaróvár Faculty, Széchenyi István University, Vár Square 2, Mosonmagyaróvár H-9200, Hungary
| | - Jitka Široká
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Faculty of Science, Palacký University and Institute of Experimental Botany ASCR, Šlechtitelů 27, Olomouc 78371, Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Novák
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Faculty of Science, Palacký University and Institute of Experimental Botany ASCR, Šlechtitelů 27, Olomouc 78371, Czech Republic
| | - Tamás Rétfalvi
- Institute of Environmental Protection and Nature Conservation, Faculty of Forestry, University of Sopron, Bajcsy-Zsilinszky str., Sopron 4H-9400, Hungary
| | - Zoltán Berzsenyi
- Institute of Agronomy, Kaposvár Campus, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Guba Sándor Str. 40, Kaposvár H-7400, Hungary
| | - Jácint Notterpek
- Department of Plant Sciences, Albert Kázmér Mosonmagyaróvár Faculty, Széchenyi István University, Vár Square 2, Mosonmagyaróvár H-9200, Hungary
| | - Zoltán Varga
- Department of Water and Environmental Sciences, Albert Kázmér Mosonmagyaróvár Faculty, Széchenyi István University, Vár Square 2, Mosonmagyaróvár H-9200, Hungary
| | - Gergely Maróti
- Institute of Plant Biology, HUN-REN Biological Research Centre, Szeged 6726, Hungary; Faculty of Water Sciences, University of Public Service, Baja 6500, Hungary
| | - Johannes van Staden
- Research Centre for Plant Growth and Development, School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, P/Bag X01, Scottsville 3209, South Africa
| | - Miroslav Strnad
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Faculty of Science, Palacký University and Institute of Experimental Botany ASCR, Šlechtitelů 27, Olomouc 78371, Czech Republic
| | - Vince Ördög
- Research Centre for Plant Growth and Development, School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, P/Bag X01, Scottsville 3209, South Africa; Department of Plant Sciences, Albert Kázmér Mosonmagyaróvár Faculty, Széchenyi István University, Vár Square 2, Mosonmagyaróvár H-9200, Hungary
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Tyśkiewicz R, Nowak A, Ozimek E, Jaroszuk-Ściseł J. Trichoderma: The Current Status of Its Application in Agriculture for the Biocontrol of Fungal Phytopathogens and Stimulation of Plant Growth. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:2329. [PMID: 35216444 PMCID: PMC8875981 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23042329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Revised: 02/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/18/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Rhizosphere filamentous fungi of the genus Trichoderma, a dominant component of various soil ecosystem mycobiomes, are characterized by the ability to colonize plant roots. Detailed knowledge of the properties of Trichoderma, including metabolic activity and the type of interaction with plants and other microorganisms, can ensure its effective use in agriculture. The growing interest in the application of Trichoderma results from their direct and indirect biocontrol potential against a wide range of soil phytopathogens. They act through various complex mechanisms, such as mycoparasitism, the degradation of pathogen cell walls, competition for nutrients and space, and induction of plant resistance. With the constant exposure of plants to a variety of pathogens, especially filamentous fungi, and the increased resistance of pathogens to chemical pesticides, the main challenge is to develop biological protection alternatives. Among non-pathogenic microorganisms, Trichoderma seems to be the best candidate for use in green technologies due to its wide biofertilization and biostimulatory potential. Most of the species from the genus Trichoderma belong to the plant growth-promoting fungi that produce phytohormones and the 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase enzyme. In the present review, the current status of Trichoderma is gathered, which is especially relevant in plant growth stimulation and the biocontrol of fungal phytopathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renata Tyśkiewicz
- Analytical Laboratory, Łukasiewicz Research Network–New Chemical Syntheses Institute, Aleja Tysiąclecia Państwa Polskiego 13a, 24-110 Puławy, Poland
| | - Artur Nowak
- Department of Industrial and Environmental Microbiology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biological Science, Maria-Curie Skłodowska University, Akademicka 19, 20-033 Lublin, Poland; (E.O.); (J.J.-Ś.)
| | - Ewa Ozimek
- Department of Industrial and Environmental Microbiology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biological Science, Maria-Curie Skłodowska University, Akademicka 19, 20-033 Lublin, Poland; (E.O.); (J.J.-Ś.)
| | - Jolanta Jaroszuk-Ściseł
- Department of Industrial and Environmental Microbiology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Institute of Biological Science, Maria-Curie Skłodowska University, Akademicka 19, 20-033 Lublin, Poland; (E.O.); (J.J.-Ś.)
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Mouden S, Leiss KA, Uthe H, Klinkhamer PG. Water Dipping of Auxin Coated Chrysanthemum Cuttings Confers Protection against Insect Herbivores. INSECTS 2020; 11:insects11110790. [PMID: 33198105 PMCID: PMC7697673 DOI: 10.3390/insects11110790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Simple Summary Cultivated chrysanthemums are one of the most economically important ornamental greenhouse crops worldwide. Classical breeding programs have mainly focused on improving aesthetic characteristics to meet the continuous increasing customer demands for new flower varieties. Consequently, commercial cultivars often lack insect resistance traits. Among the most important production constraints are biotic foes, in particular thrips and leaf miner infestations form a prominent hazard during its vegetative state. To maintain the desired aesthetic characteristics, clonal commercial propagation is aided by the use of auxin hormones for root promotion. This study aims to evaluate the potential of root promoting auxins in antiherbivore defenses. We demonstrate that water dipping of unrooted basal cut ends, coated with the commercial rooting hormone indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), conferred protection in chrysanthemum against thrips and leaf miner. Our findings add an interesting twist to the traditional role of auxins. We advocate a new twist of auxins beyond its traditional role in rooting in order to maximize plant yield by reducing herbivory through feasible, cost-effective water dipping treatments. Abstract Auxins are commonly used for commercial propagation of chrysanthemums by stem cuttings. Recent studies imply that these root-promoting hormones also affect plant defense responses. The underlying motive of this study stems from the serendipitous observation that water dipping of auxin-coated cuttings beneficially affected thrips herbivory. Therefore, the primary objective of this investigation was to explore the role of indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) in relation to herbivore susceptibility in chrysanthemum. We observed contrasting findings concerning the physical presence of IBA and it’s role in promoting susceptibility of cuttings to thrips, which may in part be explained by the phenotypical variations of cuttings generated from mother plants. Nonetheless, we repeatedly demonstrated considerable protection, in some experiments up to 37%, against thrips and leaf miner upon water dipping of IBA-coated cuttings. Assessment of polyphenol oxidase activity (PPO), 14 days after dipping treatment, suggests that neither direct induction nor priming of plant defenses are involved. Future experiments aimed at understanding the early signaling events may help to explain the underlying mechanisms involved in conferring herbivore protection. We propose a dual role for auxins in early integrated pest management strategies to maximize plant development and minimize herbivory through feasible, cost-effective water dipping treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanae Mouden
- Plant Sciences and Natural Products, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands;
- Business Unit Greenhouse Horticulture, Wageningen University & Research, Violierenweg 1, 2665 MV Bleiswijk, The Netherlands;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +31-(0)6-2012-4634
| | - Kirsten A. Leiss
- Business Unit Greenhouse Horticulture, Wageningen University & Research, Violierenweg 1, 2665 MV Bleiswijk, The Netherlands;
| | - Henriette Uthe
- Molecular Interaction Ecology, German Center for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv), Halle-Gena-Leipzig, Deutscher Platz 5e, 04103 Leipzig, Germany;
- Institute of Biodiversity, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Dornburger-Str. 159, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Peter G.L. Klinkhamer
- Plant Sciences and Natural Products, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands;
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Stirk WA, van Staden J. Potential of phytohormones as a strategy to improve microalgae productivity for biotechnological applications. Biotechnol Adv 2020; 44:107612. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2020.107612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Nguyen VC, Tandonnet JP, Khallouk S, Van Ghelder C, Portier U, Lafargue M, Banora MY, Ollat N, Esmenjaud D. Grapevine Resistance to the Nematode Xiphinema index Is Durable in Muscadine-Derived Plants Obtained from Hardwood Cuttings but Not from In Vitro. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2020; 110:1565-1571. [PMID: 32378451 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-01-20-0008-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Breeding for varieties carrying natural resistance (R) against plant-parasitic nematodes is a promising alternative to nematicide ban. In perennial crops, the long plant-nematode interaction increases the risk for R breaking and R durability is a real challenge. In grapevine, the nematode Xiphinema index has a high economic impact by transmitting Grapevine fanleaf virus (GFLV) and, to delay GFLV transmission, rootstocks resistant to this vector are being selected, using Muscadinia rotundifolia in particular as an R source. To optimize in fine this strategy, the durability has been studied under controlled conditions in F1 and BC1 muscadine-derived resistant accessions previously obtained from either hardwood-cutting or in vitro propagation. After inoculation with a mix, in equal proportions, of four lines representative of the X. index diversity, multiplication on plants has been monitored 3 to 6 years. The nematode reproduction factor remained lower than 1 in resistant plants obtained from hardwood cuttings while it increased at values far beyond 1 in resistant plants of in vitro origin. Data for nematode numbers per gram of roots mostly paralleled those obtained for the reproduction factor. The effect of the propagation type on resistance over years was also evaluated for the ratio female/juvenile and the frequency of males. Altogether our results illustrate that the muscadine-derived resistance based on hardwood cuttings is durable. By contrast, in resistant and reference accessions obtained from in vitro, our data suggest that the increased nematode multiplication might be mainly due to the modification of root architecture consecutive to this propagation method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Van Chung Nguyen
- INRAE, Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, ISA, 06903 Sophia Antipolis, France
| | - Jean-Pascal Tandonnet
- University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux Sciences Agro, INRAE, ISVV, EGFV, 33882 Villenave d'Ornon, France
| | - Samira Khallouk
- Service de la Protection du Patrimoine Végétal, ONSSA, Rabat, Morocco
| | - Cyril Van Ghelder
- INRAE, Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, ISA, 06903 Sophia Antipolis, France
| | - Ulysse Portier
- INRAE, Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, ISA, 06903 Sophia Antipolis, France
| | - Maria Lafargue
- University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux Sciences Agro, INRAE, ISVV, EGFV, 33882 Villenave d'Ornon, France
| | | | - Nathalie Ollat
- University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux Sciences Agro, INRAE, ISVV, EGFV, 33882 Villenave d'Ornon, France
| | - Daniel Esmenjaud
- INRAE, Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, ISA, 06903 Sophia Antipolis, France
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Jaroszuk-Ściseł J, Tyśkiewicz R, Nowak A, Ozimek E, Majewska M, Hanaka A, Tyśkiewicz K, Pawlik A, Janusz G. Phytohormones (Auxin, Gibberellin) and ACC Deaminase In Vitro Synthesized by the Mycoparasitic Trichoderma DEMTkZ3A0 Strain and Changes in the Level of Auxin and Plant Resistance Markers in Wheat Seedlings Inoculated with this Strain Conidia. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E4923. [PMID: 31590281 PMCID: PMC6801869 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20194923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2019] [Revised: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Both hormonal balance and plant growth may be shaped by microorganisms synthesizing phytohormones, regulating its synthesis in the plant and inducing plant resistance by releasing elicitors from cell walls (CW) by degrading enzymes (CWDE). It was shown that the Trichoderma DEMTkZ3A0 strain, isolated from a healthy rye rhizosphere, colonized the rhizoplane of wheat seedlings and root border cells (RBC) and caused approximately 40% increase of stem weight. The strain inhibited (in over 90%) the growth of polyphagous Fusarium spp. (F. culmorum, F. oxysporum, F. graminearum) phytopathogens through a mechanism of mycoparasitism. Chitinolytic and glucanolytic activity, strongly stimulated by CW of F. culmorum in the DEMTkZ3A0 liquid culture, is most likely responsible for the lysis of hyphae and macroconidia of phytopathogenic Fusarium spp. as well as the release of plant resistance elicitors. In DEMTkZ3A0 inoculated plants, an increase in the activity of the six tested plant resistance markers and a decrease in the concentration of indoleacetic acid (IAA) auxin were noted. IAA and gibberellic acid (GA) but also the 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) deaminase (ACCD) enzyme regulating ethylene production by plant were synthesized by DEMTkZ3A0 in the liquid culture. IAA synthesis was dependent on tryptophan and negatively correlated with temperature, whereas GA synthesis was positively correlated with the biomass and temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jolanta Jaroszuk-Ściseł
- Department of Environmental Microbiology, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Akademicka St. 19, 20-033 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Renata Tyśkiewicz
- Department of Environmental Microbiology, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Akademicka St. 19, 20-033 Lublin, Poland.
- Military Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Lubelska St. 2, 24-100 Puławy, Poland.
| | - Artur Nowak
- Department of Environmental Microbiology, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Akademicka St. 19, 20-033 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Ewa Ozimek
- Department of Environmental Microbiology, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Akademicka St. 19, 20-033 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Małgorzata Majewska
- Department of Environmental Microbiology, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Akademicka St. 19, 20-033 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Agnieszka Hanaka
- Department of Plant Physiology, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Akademicka St. 19, 20-033 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Katarzyna Tyśkiewicz
- ŁUKASIEWICZ Research Network-New Chemical Syntheses Institute, Tysiąclecia Państwa Polskiego Ave. 13a, 24-110 Puławy, Poland.
| | - Anna Pawlik
- Department of Biochemistry, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Akademicka St. 19, 20-033 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Grzegorz Janusz
- Department of Biochemistry, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Akademicka St. 19, 20-033 Lublin, Poland.
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Sumayo MS, Son JS, Ghim SY. Exogenous application of phenylacetic acid promotes root hair growth and induces the systemic resistance of tobacco against bacterial soft-rot pathogen Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum. FUNCTIONAL PLANT BIOLOGY : FPB 2018; 45:1119-1127. [PMID: 32290973 DOI: 10.1071/fp17332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2017] [Accepted: 05/14/2018] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Phenylacetic acid (PAA) was evaluated for its capability to promote plant growth and induce systemic resistance in tobacco (Nicotianum tabacum L cv. Xanthi) against the bacterial soft rot pathogen Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum (PCC). Exogenous application of PAA influenced root formation, the activities of defence-related enzymes and the expression of defence and growth-related genes. Increased formation of lateral roots can be observed in tobacco treated with higher PAA concentrations. The highest elicitation of induced systemic resistance (ISR) was found in plants treated with 0.5mM PAA, where the phytotoxic effect was minimal. The activities of the defence enzymes phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), peroxidase (POD) and polyphnenoloxidase (PPO) were modulated upon treatment with different PAA concentrations. Reverse transcription-PCR analyses showed that 0.5mM PAA modulated the expression of the growth-related genes NtEXP2 and NtEXP6, and the defence-related genes Coi1, NPR1, PR-1a and PR-1b. These results showed that different concentrations of PAA can elicit different responses and effects on tobacco growth and resistance. This study presents the important role of PAA not only on plant growth but also for plant immunity against phytopathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marilyn S Sumayo
- School of Life Sciences, BK21 Plus Kyungpook National University Creative BioResearch Group and Research Institute for Dokdo and Ulleung-do Island, Kyungpook National University, 80 Daehakru, Bukgu, Daegu 41566, Korea
| | - Jin-Soo Son
- School of Life Sciences, BK21 Plus Kyungpook National University Creative BioResearch Group and Research Institute for Dokdo and Ulleung-do Island, Kyungpook National University, 80 Daehakru, Bukgu, Daegu 41566, Korea
| | - Sa-Youl Ghim
- School of Life Sciences, BK21 Plus Kyungpook National University Creative BioResearch Group and Research Institute for Dokdo and Ulleung-do Island, Kyungpook National University, 80 Daehakru, Bukgu, Daegu 41566, Korea
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Expression Profiling in Pinus pinaster in Response to Infection with the Pine Wood Nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. FORESTS 2017. [DOI: 10.3390/f8080279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Maksimov IV, Yusupova ZR, Cherepanova EA, Khairulin RM, Vakhitov VA. Inhibition of IAA oxidase activity of wheat anionic peroxidase by chitooligosaccharides. APPL BIOCHEM MICRO+ 2016. [DOI: 10.1134/s0003683816050112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Carter LJ, Williams M, Böttcher C, Kookana RS. Uptake of Pharmaceuticals Influences Plant Development and Affects Nutrient and Hormone Homeostases. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:12509-18. [PMID: 26418514 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b03468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The detection of a range of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) in the soil environment has led to a number of publications demonstrating uptake by crops, however very few studies have explored the potential for impacts on plant development as a result of API uptake. This study investigated the effect of carbamazepine and verapamil (0.005-10 mg/kg) on a range of plant responses in zucchini (Cucurbita pepo). Uptake increased in a dose-dependent manner, with maximum leaf concentrations of 821.9 and 2.2 mg/kg for carbamazepine and verapamil, respectively. Increased carbamazepine uptake by zucchini resulted in a decrease in above (<60%) and below (<30%) ground biomass compared to the controls (p < 0.05). At soil concentrations >4 mg/kg the mature leaves suffered from burnt edges and white spots as well as a reduction in photosynthetic pigments but no such effects were seen for verapamil. For both APIs, further investigations revealed significant differences in the concentrations of selected plant hormones (auxins, cytokinins, abscisic acid and jasmonates), and in the nutrient composition of the leaves in comparison to the controls (p < 0.05). This is some of the first research to demonstrate that the exposure of plants to APIs is likely to cause impacts on plant development with unknown implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura J Carter
- CSIRO Land and Water, Waite Campus , Adelaide, South Australia , 5064
| | - Mike Williams
- CSIRO Land and Water, Waite Campus , Adelaide, South Australia , 5064
| | | | - Rai S Kookana
- CSIRO Land and Water, Waite Campus , Adelaide, South Australia , 5064
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