Effects of increasing co-product inclusion and reducing dietary protein on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and jowl fatty acid profile of growing-finishing pigs

Feeding a Multi-Enzyme Blend to Enhance the Nutrient Digestibility of Wheat-Canola Expeller Diets in Ileal-Cannulated Weaned Pigs

Canola expeller (CE) contains ~200 g/kg residual oil, but also fiber that impairs nutrient digestibility in weaned pigs. To study if feed enzymes increase digestibility, six diets containing either the basal or two CE samples mixed in at 250 g/kg (CE-A or CE-B) were formulated with or without a multi-enzyme blend containing cellulase, xylanase, glucanase, amylase, protease, invertase, and pectinase. The basal diet containing 620 g/kg wheat and 150 g/kg barley served as control. Twelve ileal-cannulated barrows (9-15 kg) were fed the six diets in a replicated 6 (pigs) × 3 (periods) Youden square. Ileal digestibility of gross energy and amino acids was 5% greater for basal than CE diets without differences between CE samples. Diet energy values were 4% greater for CE than basal diets due to residual oil in CE. Inclusion of the multi-enzyme blend increased total tract digestibility of energy of the basal but not CE diets by 2%. Net energy value was greater for CE-A than CE-B because CE-A contained more residual oil. In conclusion, feeding 250 g/kg CE increased diet energy values; thus, CE can substitute added fat in weaned pig diets. Feeding the multi-enzyme blend increased the energy digestibility of wheat and barley-based diets fed to weaned pigs. However, research is needed to identify enzyme combinations that increase the nutrient digestibility of CE.

Effects of feeding corn distillers dried grains with solubles diets without or with supplemental enzymes on growth performance of pigs: a meta-analysis

A meta-analysis was conducted to determine the effects of the dietary energy system (net energy or metabolizable energy), oil content of corn distillers dried grains with solubles (cDDGS), diet inclusion levels, and pig age on growth performance of pigs fed cDDGS-based diets. Mean differences of average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and gain:feed (G:F) were calculated and expressed as a percentage change relative to feeding corn-soybean meal (SBM)- and cDDGS-based diets to nursery [body weight (BW) < 25 kg] and growing-finishing (BW > 25 kg) pigs, and to compare the effects of supplementing various types of exogenous enzymes without or with phytase on growth performance. A total of 27 studies with 106 growth performance observations were included in the cDDGS dataset, and 34 studies with 84 observations for enzyme responses in cDDGS diets were used in the enzyme dataset. Approximately, 64.7% of the observations showed no change, and 26.7% of observations showed a reduction in ADG, ADFI, and G:F when feeding cDDGS-based diets to the nursery and growing-finishing pigs compared with feeding corn-SBM-based diets. Furthermore, feeding cDDGS diets resulted in decreased (P < 0.01) mean difference of ADG (-4.27%) and G:F (-1.99%) for nursery pigs, and decreased (P < 0.01) mean difference of ADG (-1.68%) and G:F (-1.06%) for growing-finishing pigs. Every percentage unit increase in the inclusion level of cDDGS in growing-finishing pig diet was associated with a decrease (P < 0.01) in ADG (-0.10%) and ADFI (-0.09%). Feeding high oil (≥10% ether extract) cDDGS-based diets to pigs resulted in a 2.96% reduction in ADFI whereas feeding reduced-oil (<10% ether extract) cDDGS-based diets reduced G:F by 1.56% compared with pigs fed corn-SBM-based diets. Supplementation of exogenous enzymes improved (P < 0.05) the mean difference of ADG and G:F by 1.94% and 2.65%, respectively, in corn-SBM-based diets, and by 2.67% and 1.87%, respectively, in cDDGS diets. Supplementation of exogenous protease, enzyme cocktail, or xylanase improved (P < 0.05) ADG by 7.29%, 2.64%, and 2.48% in pigs fed corn-SBM-based diets, respectively. There were no differences between the dietary addition of single enzymes and enzyme combinations for any growth performance parameters in corn-SBM- or cDDGS-based diets. In conclusion, feeding cDDGS-based diets slightly reduces the growth performance of nursery and growing-finishing pigs, but supplementation of xylanase or enzyme cocktail can improve G:F of pigs fed cDDGS-based diets.

Nitrogen balance in slow-growing Windsnyer pigs fed on incremental levels of amarula (Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra) nut cake

Feeding-derived amarula cake to growing pigs can overcome a narrow range of ingredients challenges and improve productivity. The objective of the current study was to determine the response in nitrogen (N) balance in slow-growing pigs fed on incremental levels of amarula nut cake (ANC). Thirty clinically healthy male growing Windsnyer (30.7 kg ± 6.57) (mean ± standard deviation) were individually assigned to separate pens in a completely randomized design, with six pigs per dietary treatment. Iso-energetic experimental diets were formulated to contain 0, 50, 100, 150, and 200 g/kg dry matter (DM) of ANC using the summit and dilution technique. Pigs were given 10 days of dietary adaptation and a collection period of 5 consecutive days after 31 days of feeding. Nitrogen intake increased linearly with incremental levels of ANC (P < 0.01). As ANC inclusion increased, the nitrogen (N) absorption, apparent N digestibility, and N retention in pigs increased until it reached a maximum, then started to decrease (P < 0.05). Nitrogen utilization increased at the rate of 0.63 g for each 1 g increase in ANC (P < 0.01). There was a linear decrease (P < 0.01) in total nitrogen excretion through urine and faeces with ANC inclusion. Urinary pH levels decreased quadratically in response to graded levels of ANC (P < 0.01). The relationship between urinary pH and ANC inclusion was Y = 0.0115x² - 0.3491x + 4.872 (P < 0.01). The nitrogen balance responses were due to ANC inclusion in diets that were balanced for limiting amino acids. It can be concluded that ANC reduces N excretion, potentially minimizing ammonia volatilization, which makes it an alternative protein source for slow-growing pigs.

Response in digestibility, growth performance, and carcass quality of local Kandol pigs to incremental levels of fermented banana stems

Fermentation of banana stems is a novel method for increasing the digestibility of fibrous porcine rations in the tropics; however, optimal feeding rates have not been determined. An experiment was carried out to determine the response of digestibility, growth performance, and carcass quality in local Kandol pigs to incremental levels of FBS in rations. A total of 20 castrated male pigs were randomly allocated to five diets, containing 0, 400, 500, 600, and 700 g FBS of the ration. Daily feed on offer was provided as 4% of the body weight on a dry matter basis and offered three times per day. As result, the inclusion level of FBS was positively correlated with NR (p < 0.001, r = 0.68). The linear regression equation was y = 0.002x + 2.4276 (R² = 0.63). Furthermore, it was also correlated with ADG (p < 0.05, r = 0.46) and with FCR (p < 0.05, r = - 0.45). The regression equation was y = 0.0634x + 174.2 (R² = 0.43) and y = - 0.0009x + 4.6521 (R² = 0.62) for ADG and FCR, respectively. The correlation between inclusion level of FBS and large intestine weight was also observed (p < 0.05, r = - 0.61). The R² value was 63. However, there was no any correlation between the inclusion level of FBS and the percentages of hanging carcass, dressing carcass, pH, color score, marbling score of the meat, and WHC (p > 0.05). The economic benefit of using FBS to improve pig diets will depend on the availability of banana stems and the labor and processing costs.

Increasing hybrid rye level substituting wheat grain with or without enzyme on growth performance and carcass traits of growing-finishing barrows and gilts

New European, fall-planted hybrid rye grown in western Canada is more resistant to ergot and fusarium and has lower content of anti-nutritional factors than common rye. We evaluated the effect of feeding increasing hybrid rye level substituting wheat grain and non-starch polysaccharide (NSP) enzyme inclusion in diets fed to growing-finishing pigs raised under western Canadian commercial conditions. In total, 1,008 pigs (~44 kg body weight [BW]) housed in 48 pens by sex, 21 pigs per pen, were fed diets with one of three rye (var. KWS Bono; KWS LOCHOW GMBH) inclusion levels substituting wheat grain: low (L; one-third of wheat replaced), medium (M; two-thirds of wheat replaced), or high (H; most wheat replaced), either without (WO) or with (W) enzyme inclusion (280 units of β-glucanase and 900 units of xylanase per kilogram feed; Endofeed W DC; GNC Bioferm) over four growth phases (Grower 2: d 0 to 22, Grower 3: d 23 to 42, Finisher 1: d 43 to 63, Finisher 2: d 64 to slaughter). Pen BW, feed added, and orts were measured on d 0, 22, 42, 63, 76, 91, and at slaughter weight (130 kg). Warm carcasses were weighed and graded (Destron). BW was not affected by either increasing hybrid rye level substituting wheat grain or enzyme inclusion throughout the trial. For the entire trial (d 0 to 76), pigs fed increasing hybrid rye level substituting wheat grain had decreased (P < 0.050) average daily feed intake (ADFI; L 3.05, M 2.98, H 2.91 kg/d) and average daily weight gain (ADG; L 1.01, M 1.00, H 0.97 kg/d). Enzyme inclusion did not affect ADFI but tended (P = 0.080) to increase ADG (WO 0.98, W 1.00 kg/d). Enzyme inclusion improved (P < 0.050) gain-to-feed ratio only in pigs fed the H rye level. Most carcass traits were not affected by either increasing hybrid rye level substituting wheat grain or enzyme inclusion. Increasing dietary hybrid rye level substituting wheat grain increased (P < 0.001) cost per tonne of feed (L 240.28, M 241.28, H 242.20 Can$/kg), but did not affect feed cost per pig or per kilogram BW gain. Enzyme inclusion increased (P < 0.001) cost per tonne of feed (WO 240.36, W 242.15 Can$/kg), but feed cost per pig (WO 82.14, W 80.44 Can$ per pig) and per kilogram BW gain (WO 0.96, W 0.94 Can$/kg gain) were reduced (P < 0.050). In conclusion, fall-planted hybrid rye can completely replace wheat grain in grower-finisher pig diets without affecting feed efficiency, feed cost per pig or feed cost per kilogram BW gain. Inclusion of NSP enzyme would be recommended for diets including high rye levels to improve feed efficiency and ADG.

Effects of reducing dietary crude protein levels and replacement with crystalline amino acids on growth performance, carcass composition, and fresh pork quality of finishing pigs fed ractopamine hydrochloride

Progeny of GPK-35 females mated to PIC 380 boars were blocked by initial BW, and within the 9 blocks, pens of pigs (3 gilts and 3 barrows/pen) were randomly assigned to dietary treatments where CP of finisher-I, -II, and -III diets was 1) 16.04, 14.55, and 16.23%, respectively (Ctrl); 2) 14.76, 13.48, and 15.27%, respectively (ILE); 3) 14.26, 12.78, and 14.28%, respectively (VAL); or 4) 12.65, 12.38, and 13.32%, respectively (NoSBM). All finisher-III diets included 10 mg/kg of ractopamine hydrochloride (RAC) and a Lys:ME ratio of 2.79 g/Mcal. At slaughter, HCW and Fat-O-Meat'er data were recorded before carcasses were subjected to a rapid chilling process. A subsample of whole hams (2/pen) and whole loins (2/pen) were transported under refrigeration to the University of Arkansas. Hams were dissected with a knife into lean, fat, and bone, and 2.5-cm-thick chops from the semimembranosus (SM) and the LM were used to measure fresh pork quality characteristics. Both ADG and G:F decreased (linear, = 0.05) as CP decreased in finisher-I diets, whereas ADFI was reduced (linear, = 0.01) in response to decreasing CP in finisher-II diets. When RAC was included in the finisher-III diets, ADFI and BW decreased (linear, ≤ 0.03) with decreasing CP, and pigs fed the ILE diet had greater (cubic, < 0.01) G:F than pigs fed the Ctrl and VAL diets. Across the entire finishing period, ADG and ADFI decreased (linear, = 0.01) in response to reductions in dietary CP. Conversely, reducing CP in finisher diets did not ( ≥ 0.13) affect carcass yield, fat depth, LM depth, or calculated fat-free lean yield, and dietary CP content did not ( ≥ 0.09) alter the lean, fat, or bone composition of fresh hams. Moreover, there was no effect of dietary CP on the visual and instrumental color or firmness of the LM ( ≥ 0.06) or SM ( ≥ 0.12). However, there were linear increases in LM marbling scores ( = 0.02) and intramuscular fat content ( = 0.03) as CP was reduced in the finisher diets. Although reducing dietary CP decreased overall ADG and ADFI by approximately 6.1 and 4.9%, respectively, carcass composition was not impacted by dietary CP level. More importantly, reducing dietary CP, although meeting the standard ileal digestible requirements for Lys, Thr, Trp, Met, Ile, and Val with crystalline AA, did not impact pork color or water-holding capacity and actually increased the intramuscular fat content of the LM.

Net energy of hemp hulls and processed hemp hull products fed to growing pigs and the comparison of net energy determined via indirect calorimetry and calculated from prediction equations

An experiment was conducted to determine the NE of hemp hulls (HH), extruded HH (EHH), and a blended product of HH with pea (HHP) fed to growing pigs using indirect calorimetry (IC) and to determine effects of dietary fiber on heat production (HP) and fasting HP (FHP). Twenty-four growing barrows with an average initial BW of 22.9 ± 1.75 kg were individually housed in adjustable metabolism crates. Pigs were randomly allotted to 1 of 4 dietary treatments with 6 replicates per treatment. A corn-soybean meal basal diet was prepared. Three additional diets were formulated to contain a constant ratio of corn and soybean meal and each of the test ingredients. Pigs were fed experimental diets for 16 d including 10 d for adaptation and 6 d for total collection of feces and urine to determine DE and ME of experimental diets. Pigs were then moved into IC chambers to determine HP and FHP. The apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of DM was greater ( < 0.01) in the HHP diet than in the HH and EHH diets but less ( < 0.01) than in the basal diet. Similarly, the ATTD of GE in the basal diet was greater ( < 0.01) compared with the HH, EHH, and HHP diets. The DE, ME, and NE of the basal diet were greater ( < 0.01) than those of the HH, EHH, and HHP diets. No significant differences were observed for the HP (on average, 1,904 kcal/kg DM) and FHP (on average, 1,320 kcal/kg DM) among treatments. However, the retained energy of pigs fed the basal diet (1,763 kcal/kg DM) was greater ( < 0.05) than for those fed the HH (1,501 kcal/kg DM) and HHP (1,482 kcal/kg DM) diets. The NE:ME ratio tended to be greater ( ≤ 0.10) for the basal diet (0.85) than for the HH (0.82), EHH (0.82), and HHP (0.83) diets. The NE of HH, EHH, and HHP determined by the IC method were 2,375, 2,320, and 2,399 kcal/kg DM, respectively, whereas values calculated using published prediction equations were 2,308, 2,161, and 2,278 kcal/kg DM, respectively. However there was no difference between determined and predicted values. In conclusion, the NE of HH, EHH, and HHP determined using the IC method were 2,375, 2,320, and 2,399 kcal/kg DM, respectively, and these values were 2.9, 7.1, and 5.2% greater, respectively, than the predicted values, although no difference was observed between determined and predicted values. However, the HP values observed for the basal diet and the diets containing high dietary fiber in the form of HH, EHH, or HHP were similar.

Nutrient profile and digestibility of tubers and agro-industrial coproducts determined using an in vitro model of swine

Exploring and evaluating alternative feed ingredients to be used in swine diet is essential due to highly variable cost and limited availability of conventional feed ingredients. Tubers and agro-industrial coproducts could provide the basis for producing affordable swine feed. However, information on the nutritional value of these potential alternative feedstuffs is necessary while considering their use in swine feeding program. Four tubers (purple sweet potato [PSP], okinawan sweet potato, taro and cassava) and 3 coproducts (okara, wheat millrun [WMR] and barley brewers grain [BBG]) were analyzed for their proximate nutrients, starch, fibers and gross energy (GE) content. Two independent in vitro studies were carried out for tubers and coproducts to determine their nutrients digestibility using a 3-step enzymatic assay (which mimics the digestion occurring in the gastrointestinal tract of swine) with 9 replicates of each sample digested in 3 batches equally. All replicate samples were used to determine in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDDM) while 2 replicates from each batch were used to determine in vitro GE digestibility (IVDGE). Among tubers, CP content was the highest in taro (8.8%) and the lowest in cassava (3.7%), while CP content among coproducts was the highest in okara (22.7%) and the lowest in WMR (11.8%). Ether extract content among tubers ranged from 1.1% to 2.8%. The GE content among tubers, ranged from 4,134 to 4,334 kcal/kg whereas among coproducts it ranged from 4,270 to 4,794 kcal/kg. Among tubers, IVDDM for PSP was significantly higher (86.8%, P < 0.001) than taro (70.3%). Among coproducts, IVDDM of okara (74.1%) was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than BBG (61.3%). In conclusion, both tubers and coproducts can be used as a partial substitute of conventional energy feedstuffs in swine diets as these are rich in GE and other nutrients and are fairly digestible.

Nutrients, amino acid, fatty acid and non-starch polysaccharide profile and in vitro digestibility of macadamia nut cake in swine

The highly variable cost and limited availability of conventional feedstuffs make it imperative to explore alternative feedstuffs to be used in swine. Macadamia nut cake (MNC), a coproduct of the macadamia nut oil industry, has not been well studied. MNC was analyzed for its nutrient profile, gross energy (GE), fibers, amino acids and fatty acids content. Dry matter (DM) and GE digestibility of MNC in swine was determined using an in vitro model. On a DM basis, ash, crude protein, ether extract, NDF, ADF, lignin and GE were found to be 3.7, 25.5, 11.9, 35.8, 28.0, 16.0% and 5581 kcal/kg, respectively. Total and soluble non-starch polysaccharide content were 32.2 and 11.8%, respectively. The concentration of lysine was found to be 0.7%. The DM and GE digestibility were found to be 75.7 and 71.4%, respectively. Gross energy content of MNC is comparable with that of corn and higher than soybean meal, while protein content is twice as high as corn but lower than soybean meal. In conclusion, MNC is not merely a good source of protein and energy but also has fairly high digestibility in swine. Hence, it can be used as a viable alternative source of energy and protein in swine diets.

Comparison of growth and efficiency of dietary energy utilization by growing pigs offered feeding programs based on the metabolizable energy or the net energy system

The NE system describes the useful energy available for growth better than the ME system. The use of NE in diet formulation should maintain growth performance and carcass parameters when diets contain a diversity of ingredients. This study compared the growth performance of pigs on diets formulated using either the ME or the NE system. A total of 944 gilts and 1,110 castrates (40.8 ± 2.0 kg initial BW) were allotted to group pens and assigned to 1 of 5 different feeding programs according to a randomized complete block design. The 5 treatments included: a corn-soybean meal control diet (CTL), a corn-soybean meal diet plus corn distiller's dried grains with solubles (DDGS), formulated to be equal in ME to the CTL diet (ME-D), a corn-soybean meal diet plus corn DDGS, formulated to be equal in NE to the CTL diet (NE-D), a corn-soybean meal diet plus corn DDGS and corn germ meal, to be equal in ME to the CTL diet (ME-DC) and a corn-soybean meal diet plus corn DDGS and corn germ meal, formulated to be equal in NE to the CTL diet (NE-DC). When required, fat was added as an energy source. Pigs were harvested at an average BW of 130.3 ± 4.0 kg. Growth performance was not affected by treatment ( = 0.581, = 0. 177, and = 0.187 for ADG, ADFI, and G:F, respectively). However, carcass growth decreased with the addition of coproducts except for the NE-D treatment ( = 0.016, = 0.001, = 0.018, = 0.010, and = 0.010 for dressing percentage, HCW, carcass ADG, back fat, and loin depth, respectively). Carcass G:F and lean percentage did not differ among treatments ( = 0.109 and = 0.433, respectively). On the other hand, NE intake decreased ( = 0.035) similarly to that of carcass gain, suggesting a relationship between NE intake and energy retention. Calculations of NE per kilogram of BW gain differed among treatments ( = 0.010), but NE per kilogram of carcass was similar among treatments ( = 0.640). This suggests that NE may be better than ME at explaining the carcass results. Finally, ME intake and ME per kilogram of BW gain were not different among treatments ( = 0.112), but ME per kilogram of carcass gain was different among treatments ( = 0.048). In conclusion, the sequential addition of coproducts in diets formulated on an NE or ME basis can result in similar growth performance, but carcass parameters may be affected independently of the energy system used. However, formulating diets based on NE tended to improve predictability of growth, especially carcass parameters.

Feeding increasing dietary inclusions of extrudedBrassica junceacanola expeller-pressed cake on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and jowl fatty acids of growing-finishing pigs

Zhou, X., Young, M. G., Zamora, V., Zijlstra, R. T. and Beltranena, E. 2014. Feeding increasing dietary inclusions of extruded Brassica juncea canola expeller-pressed cake on growth performance, carcass characteristics, and jowl fatty acids of growing-finishing pigs. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 94: 331–342. The energy value of canola meal is considered low because of its relatively higher fibre and depleted oil content. Brassica juncea is a novel canola species with thinner seed coat and reduced fibre, but twice the glucosinolate content of B. napus. Remaining oil in canola cake provides greater dietary energy compared with solvent-extracted meal. Extrusion prior to expeller pressing may increase fat and protein digestibility and decrease the antinutritive effects of glucosinolates. A total of 880 pigs (38 kg), housed in 40 pens by sex, were fed 0, 5, 10, 15, or 20% extruded B. juncea expeller-pressed cake (EPC) to slaughter weight (120 kg) to evaluate the effects on growth performance, dressing, carcass traits, and jowl fatty acids. Diets provided 9.6 MJ net energy (NE) and 1.0, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, and 0.7 g standardized ileal digestible Lys:MJ NE over five growth phases (days 0–14, 15–35, 36–56, 57–74, day 75 to slaughter weight). Each 5% EPC inclusion linearly decreased (P<0.05) feed disappearance (ADFI) by 46 g and weight gain (ADG) by 8 g, but did not affect gain:feed. Each 5% EPC inclusion linearly decreased (P<0.01) carcass weight by 440 g, loin depth by 0.6 mm, and increased days on test by 0.43, but did not affect dressing, backfat thickness, lean yield, or carcass index. Each 5% EPC inclusion linearly increased (P<0.001) mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acid content and iodine value by 0.8, 1.0 and 1.4 g 100 g−1of jowl fat, respectively. In conclusion, increasing dietary EPC inclusions decreased ADFI, ADG, carcass weight, and loin depth, and increased jowl fat unsaturation. We attributed much of the decrease in feed intake to greater 3-butenyl (9.7 µmol g−1) content in extruded B. juncea canola expeller-pressed cake, a glucosinolate more bitter than others in conventional canola.