Influence of supplementation with corn dried distillers grains plus solubles to growing calves fed medium-quality hay on growth performance and feeding behavior

Training and Adaptation of Beef Calves to Precision Supplementation Technology for Individual Supplementation in Grazing Systems

Supplementation of beef cattle can be used to meet both nutrient requirements and production goals; however, supplementation costs influence farm profitability. Common supplementation delivery strategies are generally designed to provide nutrients to the mean of the group instead of an individual. Precision individual supplementation technologies, such as the Super SmartFeed (SSF, C-Lock Inc., Rapid City, SD, USA), are available but are generally cost prohibitive to producers. These systems require adaptation or training periods for cattle to utilize this technology. The objective of this research was to assess the training and adoption rates of three different groups of cattle (suckling calves, weaned steers, replacement heifers) to the SSF. Successful adaptation was determined if an individual's supplement intake was above the group average of total allotted feed consumed throughout the training period. Suckling calves (n = 31) underwent a 12 d training period on pasture; 45% of suckling calves adapted to the SSF and average daily intake differed (p < 0.0001) by day of training. Weaned steers (n = 79) were trained in drylot for 13 d. Of the weaned steers, 62% were trained to the SSF, and average daily intake differed (p < 0.0001) by day of training. Replacement heifers (n = 63) grazed tall fescue pastures and had access to SSF for 22 d of training. The success rate of replacement heifers was 73%. For replacement heifers, the daily intake did not differ (p < 0.0001) by day of training. Results indicate production stage may influence cattle adaptation to precision technologies.

Solar radiation and temperature as predictor variables for dry matter intake in beef steers

Solar radiation may be an important weather variable that has not been included in previous dry matter intake (DMI) prediction models. Solar radiation affects the overall effective ambient temperature, which in turn contributes to the net gain of heat in an animal’s body. This experiment examined ambient temperature and solar radiation with DMI in beef steers. Data from 790 beef steers collected between 2011 and 2018 using an Insentec feeding system was used. Daily data was condensed into weekly averages (n = 13,895 steer-weeks). The variables considered for this study were DMI (2.50 to 23.60 kg/d), body weight (197 to 796 kg), calculated dietary energy density (NEm; 0.79 to 2.97 Mcal/kg), ambient temperature (-23.73 to 21.40°C), two-week lag of ambient temperature (-20.73 to 23.56°C), monthly lag of ambient temperature (-17.95 to 22.74°C), solar radiation (30.8 to 297.1 W/m2), two-week lag of solar radiation (34.6 to 272 W/m2) and monthly lag of solar radiation (43.7 to 256.6 W/m2). Residuals of DMI fitting week of the year (fixed) and experiment (random) were used to generate scatter plots with other explanatory variables to identify if non-linear relationships existed. Body weight and NEm had both linear and quadratic relationships with DMI, while the relationship with DMI for other variables was linear. The MIXED procedure of SAS with Toeplitz variance-covariance structure was used to determine the final model of DMI. After accounting for body weight and NEm in the model, two-week lag of ambient temperature and monthly lag of solar radiation interacted together (P = 0.0001), and this accounted for 0.7790 (R2) variation in DMI and improved the model fit. Therefore, these two variables and their interactions should be considered in DMI prediction equations of beef steers.

Industry 4.0 and Precision Livestock Farming (PLF): An up to Date Overview across Animal Productions

Precision livestock farming (PLF) has spread to various countries worldwide since its inception in 2003, though it has yet to be widely adopted. Additionally, the advent of Industry 4.0 and the Internet of Things (IoT) have enabled a continued advancement and development of PLF. This modern technological approach to animal farming and production encompasses ethical, economic and logistical aspects. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of PLF and Industry 4.0, to identify current applications of this rather novel approach in different farming systems for food producing animals, and to present up to date knowledge on the subject. Current scientific literature regarding the spread and application of PLF and IoT shows how efficient farm animal management systems are destined to become. Everyday farming practices (feeding and production performance) coupled with continuous and real-time monitoring of animal parameters can have significant impacts on welfare and health assessment, which are current themes of public interest. In the context of feeding a rising global population, the agri-food industry and industry 4.0 technologies may represent key features for successful and sustainable development.

Utilizing an electronic feeder to measure individual mineral intake, feeding behavior, and growth performance of cow-calf pairs grazing native range

Crossbred Angus cow–calf pairs (n = 28 pairs) at the Central Grasslands Research Extension Center (Streeter, ND) were used to evaluate an electronic feeder to monitor individual mineral intake and feeding behavior and their relationship with growth performance and liver mineral concentrations. Cows and calves were fitted with radio frequency identification ear tags that allowed access to an electronic feeder (SmartFeed system; C-Lock Inc., Rapid City, SD) and were provided ad libitum minerals (Purina Wind and Rain Storm, Land O’Lakes, Inc., Arden Hills, MN). Mineral intake, number of visits, and duration at the feeder were recorded over a 95-d monitoring period while pairs were grazing native range. Liver biopsies were collected from a subset of cows on the final day of monitoring and analyzed for mineral concentrations. Data were analyzed with the GLM procedure in SAS for mineral intake and feeding behavior with age class (cows vs. calves), intake category (high vs. low), and the interaction between class and category in the model. Correlations were calculated among cow feeding behavior and calf intake and growth performance with the CORR procedure, and a comparison of liver mineral concentrations among cows of high (>90 g/d; average 125.4 g/d) and low (<90 g/d; average 33.5 g/d) mineral intake was performed using the GLM procedure. High-intake calves (>50 g/d; average 72.2 g/d) consumed greater (P < 0.001) amounts of minerals than low-intake calves (<50 g/d; average 22.2 g/d) intake calves. Cows and calves attended the mineral feeder a similar (P = 0.71) proportion of the days during the experiment (overall mean of 20%, or once every 5 d). On days calves visited the feeder, they consumed less (P < 0.01) minerals than cows (222 ± 27 vs. 356 ± 26 g/d, respectively). Over the grazing period, calves gained 1.17 ± 0.02 kg/d, whereas cows lost 0.35 ± 0.02 kg/d. Calf mineral intake was correlated with cow duration at the mineral feeder (r = 0.403, P = 0.05). Cows with high mineral intake had greater (P < 0.01) concentrations of Se (2.92 vs. 2.41 ug/g), Cu (247 vs. 116 ug/g), and Co (0.51 vs. 0.27 ug/g) compared with low mineral intake cows, but liver concentrations of Fe, Zn, Mo, and Mn did not differ (P ≥ 0.22). We were able to successfully monitor individual mineral intake and feeding behavior with the electronic feeder evaluated, and the divergence in mineral intake observed with the feeder was corroborated by concentrations of minerals in the liver.

Effects of ractopamine hydrochloride supplementation on feeding behavior, growth performance, and carcass characteristics of finishing steers. Transl Anim Sci 2019;3:1143-1152. [PMID: 32704878 PMCID: PMC7200486 DOI: 10.1093/tas/txz114]

Ractopamine hydrochloride (RAC) is a β-adrenergic agonist that functions as a repartitioning agent to improve muscling in feedlot cattle. Many studies have investigated the effects of RAC on growth performance and carcass characteristics; however, there is minimal information about the influence of RAC on feeding behavior. Sixty-nine steers (body weight [BW] = 364 ± 3.9 kg) predominately of Angus and Simmental breeding were subjected to a 126-d (n = 46) or 154-d (n = 23) feeding period and randomly assigned to one of two treatment groups: supplementation to provide 0 (CON; n = 34) or 267 ± 4.9 mg/d of RAC (n = 35). Ractopamine was provided as Optaflexx 45 at 0.024% of the diet (dry matter [DM] basis; Elanco Animal Health, Greenfield, IN). Dietary treatments were fed the final 42 d in the feed yard (treatment period). Feeding behavior and growth performance were measured using radio frequency identification tags and the Insentec feeding system. Following the final day of treatment, steers were slaughtered and carcass measurements were recorded. Data were analyzed using MIXED models in SAS. There were no differences in BW, average daily gain (ADG), DM intake (DMI), gain:feed ratio (G:F), or feeding behavior during the pretreatment period (P > 0.44). Ractopamine supplementation increased G:F during the treatment period (P = 0.02) and during the total period (P = 0.03) and tended to increase ADG during the treatment and total period (P ≤ 0.08). DMI was not affected during the treatment or total period (P > 0.67). Eating time per visit, per meal, and per day were decreased (P < 0.02) in steers supplemented with RAC during the treatment period. DMI per minute was increased (P = 0.02) in steers supplemented with RAC. Hot carcass weight, dressing percentage, and 12th rib fat were not influenced by RAC supplementation. Ractopamine supplementation decreased marbling (P = 0.008) and kidney, pelvic, and heart percentage (P = 0.04) and increased longissimus muscle area (P = 0.01). These data demonstrate that RAC supplementation for 42 d improves feed efficiency, increases the rate of DMI without altering DMI, and increases muscling in finishing cattle.

Influence of feeding direct-fed microbial supplementation on growth performance and feeding behavior in naturally fed and conventionally fed finishing cattle with different dietary adaptation periods

To determine the effects of finishing system (conventional vs. natural), dietary adaptation length (14 vs. 28 d), and direct-fed microbial (DFM) supplementation (no DFM vs. DFM) on growth performance and feeding behavior, 120 yearling steers (390 ± 2.8 kg) were used in a completely randomized design with a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments. Feed intake was monitored using the Insentec feeding system. Blood samples were collected every 28 d. After 140 d on feed, steers were slaughtered and carcass characteristics collected. Conventionally fed steers had greater (P ≤ 0.001) final BW, carcass weight, and dressing %. Dry matter intake was not influenced (P ≥ 0.31) by treatment. Length of dietary adaptation period did not influence (P ≥ 016) final BW, ADG, and G:F. There was a feeding system × DFM interaction (P ≤ 0.02) for ADG and G:F with conventionally fed steers fed DFM having the greatest (P ≤ 0.05) and naturally fed steers supplemented with DFM having the least (P ≤ 0.05) ADG and G:F. Number of visits to the feed bunk and number of meals per day did not differ (P > 0.05) among treatments. Time eating per visit and per meal was greater (P = 0.05) in steers supplemented with DFM than in steers not supplemented with DFM. On day 56 and 140, plasma glucose concentration was greater (P ≤ 0.03) in steers adapted in 14 d than in steers adapted in 28 d. On day 84, plasma glucose concentration was greater (P = 0.02) in naturally fed compared to conventionally fed steers. On day 112, there was a dietary adaptation period × DFM interaction (P = 0.004) for plasma glucose concentration with glucose concentration greatest (P ≤ 0.05) in steers adapted in 14 d supplemented with DFM and in steers adapted in 28 d not supplemented with DFM, least for steers adapted in 28 d supplemented with DFM, with steers adapted in 14 d not supplemented with DFM intermediate (P ≤ 0.05). On day 112 and 140, plasma urea N concentration was greater (P ≤ 0.05) in steers adapted in 28 d than in steers adapted in 14 d. These data indicate that conventionally fed steers generally had improved growth performance compared to naturally fed steers. Length of dietary adaptation and DFM supplementation had minimal effects on growth performance but did interact with feeding system to influence feeding behavior and blood metabolite concentrations.

Influence of limit-feeding and time of day of feed availability to growing calves on growth performance and feeding behavior in cold weather

Objective swere to determine the effects of limit-feeding and time of feed access in cold weather on growth performance and feeding behavior of growing calves fed a corn silage-based diet. Sixty-six steers (BW = 317 ± 5.3 kg) and 30 heifers (BW = 239 ± 7.6 kg) were assigned randomly to dietary treatment: 1) ad libitum feed intake (AL), 2) limit-fed to 80% of the average DMI of the AL group on a BW basis in the daytime (0601-1759 h; LF-D), 3) limit-fed to 80% of the average DMI of the AL group on a BW basis in the nighttime (1800-0559 h; LF-N), and 4) limit-fed to 80% of the average DMI of the AL group on a BW basis, split 1/2 in the daytime and 1/2 in the nighttime (LF-S). Feed intake and feeding behavior were monitored over 84 d using the Insentec feeding system. Average daily gain, DMI, and G:F were greater ( ≤ 0.002) in the AL group compared with others. Dry matter intake was not different ( = 0.17) when comparing the LF-D with the LF-N groups. Average daily gain and G:F were greater ( ≤ 0.05) when comparing the LF-N group to the LF-D group, and were not different ( ≥ 0.51) when comparing the LF-S group with the mean of the LF-D and LF-N groups. Number of visits and meals per d was greater ( ≤ 0.001) in the LF-N than the LF-D group. Feed intake per visit was not different ( = 0.55) when comparing the AL group and others, and tended to be greater ( = 0.06) in the LF-D than the LF-N group. Feed intake per meal was greater ( < 0.001) when comparing the AL group with others, and the LF-D with the LF-N group. Feed intake per minute (eating rate) was not influenced by treatment. In conclusion, limit-feeding at 80% of ad libitum intake decreased ADG and G:F. Limit-feeding in the nighttime as compared to limit-feeding in the daytime improves growth performance and increases feeding activity (number of visits and meals per d) which could be because of increased heat production to help maintain body temperature and thus reduce maintenance energy requirements.

Influence of forage source and forage inclusion level on growth performance, feeding behavior, and carcass characteristics in finishing steers

Two experiments were conducted to determine the effects of forage source (Exp. 1) and forage inclusion level (Exp. 2) in finishing diets on growth performance and feeding behavior. In Exp. 1, sixty-four steers (394 ± 3.6 kg BW) were allotted by BW to 3 pens. Within each pen, steers were assigned randomly to 1 of 4 dietary treatments containing different forage sources: 1) alfalfa hay, 2) corn silage, 3) wheat straw, and 4) corn stover. Alfalfa hay was provided at 10% of the diet DM and the other forage sources were offered to provide the same percentage of NDF from forage. In Exp. 2, forty-four steers (451 ± 4.6 kg BW) were used in a completely randomized design and were fed dry-rolled corn-based diets containing a mixture of hay and corn silage as the forage source at 5%, 10%, 15%, or 20% forage (DM basis). Intake and feeding behavior traits were calculated from data generated by the Insentec feeding system. In Exp. 1, final BW, ADG, and G:F did not differ between treatments. Dry matter intake and feeding behavior traits responded differently depending on week (interaction ≤ 0.04) of the experiment with DMI generally greater in steers fed alfalfa or corn silage early in the experiment and time per meal generally greater and eating rate slower in steers fed diets containing wheat straw or corn stover. In Exp. 2, ADG and G:F decreased linearly ( < 0.001) with increasing forage inclusion. Quadratic effects ( ≤ 0.002) were observed for eating time (per visit, meal, and d) and DMI (per visit, meal, and min) with eating time greatest in the 10% forage treatment and DMI the least in the 20% forage treatment. Dry matter intake per d responded differently depending on week (interaction = 0.01) with some weeks exhibiting linear and other quadratic effects that were primarily the result of the largest decrease in DMI in the 20% forage inclusion treatment. These data indicate that growth performance was not influenced by forage source, when fed at a similar NDF inclusion level, but was negatively impacted by increasing forage inclusion in high-concentrate finishing diets. However, both forage source and inclusion level impacted feeding behavior as cattle consuming bulkier forages (wheat straw or corn stover) or at greater inclusion levels typically had a slower eating rate and took longer to consume a meal. Additionally, DMI may decrease at greater forage inclusion levels (> 15%).

Supplementation of corn dried distillers grains plus solubles to gestating beef cows fed low-quality forage: I. Altered intake behavior, body condition, and reproduction

To investigate the effects of corn dried distillers grains plus solubles (DDGS) supplementation to cows fed corn stover and silage during late gestation, 27 multiparous beef cows (674 ± 17 kg; BCS, 5.6 ± 0.1) were divided randomly into 2 pens equipped with electronic feeders. For 10 wk, both groups were fed the basal diet for ad libitum intake while 1 group was supplemented (SUP; = 12) with DDGS at 0.3% of BW (DM basis). Following parturition, all cows received the same diet for an additional 8 wk. During gestation, SUP cows gained BW ( < 0.01), and there was no change in BCS ( 0.79). Nonsupplemented (CON) cows tended to lose BW ( 0.06) and lost BCS ( < 0.01) during gestation. Supplemented cows consumed more forage ( 0.01) and total feed than CON cows. An interaction of treatment and day was observed for time spent consuming forage ( < 0.01); SUP cows consumed forage faster than CON cows ( ≤ 0.01) early in gestation. Control cows ate more meals than SUP cows ( = 0.06) from d 201 to 218 of gestation. Supplemented cows tended ( = 0.09) to consume larger meals than CON cows and spent more ( < 0.01) time eating than CON cows around d 240 of gestation. Calves born to SUP cows tended ( = 0.06) to be heavier than calves born to CON cows. During lactation, both groups gained ( < 0.01) BW. Body condition score was less ( < 0.05) in CON cows than it was in SUP cows at the end of the study. Dry matter intake during lactation increased ( < 0.01) over time but was not influenced ( = 0.44) by treatment. Supplemented cows spent more time ( < 0.01) eating than CON cows after wk 4 of lactation, and they ate faster than CON cows until wk 3 of lactation whereas CON cows ate faster than SUP cows after wk 6 of lactation ( 0.01). The number of meals increased with advancing lactation ( < 0.01) and CON cows averaged more meals daily than SUP cows ( = 0.01). Conversely, meal size decreased as lactation advanced ( < 0.01), and SUP cows consumed larger meals than CON cows ( = 0.05). Supplementation with DDGS during gestation influenced intake behavior during gestation and lactation as well as the maintenance of maternal BW and BCS and calf birth BW.

Influence of dry-rolled corn processing and increasing dried corn distillers grains plus solubles inclusion for finishing cattle on growth performance and feeding behavior

Sixty-four yearling steers (345 ± 4.2 kg BW) were used to study the effects of degree of dry-rolled corn processing and corn dried distillers grains plus solubles (DDGS) inclusion on feeding and ruminating behavior, G:F, and carcass characteristics. Steers were assigned randomly to 1 of 4 experimental treatments (n = 16 per treatment): 1) coarse-rolled (2.68 mm) corn and 20% DDGS, 2) coarse-rolled corn and 40% DDGS, 3) fine-rolled (1.46 mm) corn and 20% DDGS, and 4) fine-rolled corn and 40% DDGS. Final BW and ADG were not affected by corn processing or DDGS. Dry matter intake (kg/d and % of BW) decreased (P < 0.001) and G:F increased (P < 0.001) with increasing inclusion of DDGS. Meal number increased (P ≤ 0.05) and meal size decreased (P < 0.001) with finer dry-roll corn processing and with increasing inclusion of DDGS. Drinking time decreased (P = 0.03) with finer dry-rolled corn processing and tended to increase (P = 0.06) with increased inclusion of DDGS. Rumination time while standing decreased (P = 0.03) with increased inclusion of DDGS. Increasing inclusion of DDGS from 20 to 40% decreased intake, increased G:F, and altered feeding behavior of finishing steers consuming a 90% concentrate diet without affecting carcass quality. Increasing the degree of dry-roll corn processing did not impact growth performance and did not interact with increasing inclusion of DDGS in finishing diets.