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Melrose J. Hippo cell signaling and HS-proteoglycans regulate tissue form and function, age-dependent maturation, extracellular matrix remodeling, and repair. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2024; 326:C810-C828. [PMID: 38223931 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00683.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Revised: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 01/16/2024]
Abstract
This review examined how Hippo cell signaling and heparan sulfate (HS)-proteoglycans (HSPGs) regulate tissue form and function. Despite being a nonweight-bearing tissue, the brain is regulated by Hippo mechanoresponsive cell signaling pathways during embryonic development. HS-proteoglycans interact with growth factors, morphogens, and extracellular matrix components to regulate development and pathology. Pikachurin and Eyes shut (Eys) interact with dystroglycan to stabilize the photoreceptor axoneme primary cilium and ribbon synapse facilitating phototransduction and neurotransduction with bipolar retinal neuronal networks in ocular vision, the primary human sense. Another HSPG, Neurexin interacts with structural and adaptor proteins to stabilize synapses and ensure specificity of neural interactions, and aids in synaptic potentiation and plasticity in neurotransduction. HSPGs also stabilize the blood-brain barrier and motor neuron basal structures in the neuromuscular junction. Agrin and perlecan localize acetylcholinesterase and its receptors in the neuromuscular junction essential for neuromuscular control. The primary cilium is a mechanosensory hub on neurons, utilized by YES associated protein (YAP)-transcriptional coactivator with PDZ-binding motif (TAZ) Hippo, Hh, Wnt, transforming growth factor (TGF)-β/bone matrix protein (BMP) receptor tyrosine kinase cell signaling. Members of the glypican HSPG proteoglycan family interact with Smoothened and Patched G-protein coupled receptors on the cilium to regulate Hh and Wnt signaling during neuronal development. Control of glycosyl sulfotransferases and endogenous protease expression by Hippo TAZ YAP represents a mechanism whereby the fine structure of HS-proteoglycans can be potentially modulated spatiotemporally to regulate tissue morphogenesis in a similar manner to how Hippo signaling controls sialyltransferase expression and mediation of cell-cell recognition, dysfunctional sialic acid expression is a feature of many tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Melrose
- Raymond Purves Laboratory, Institute of Bone and Joint Research, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Northern Sydney Local Health District, Royal North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards, New South Wales, Australia
- Sydney Medical School-Northern, University of Sydney at Royal North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards, New South Wales, Australia
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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2
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Xie C, Schaefer L, Iozzo RV. Global impact of proteoglycan science on human diseases. iScience 2023; 26:108095. [PMID: 37867945 PMCID: PMC10589900 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.108095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2023] Open
Abstract
In this comprehensive review, we will dissect the impact of research on proteoglycans focusing on recent developments involved in their synthesis, degradation, and interactions, while critically assessing their usefulness in various biological processes. The emerging roles of proteoglycans in global infections, specifically the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, and their rising functions in regenerative medicine and biomaterial science have significantly affected our current view of proteoglycans and related compounds. The roles of proteoglycans in cancer biology and their potential use as a next-generation protein-based adjuvant therapy to combat cancer is also emerging as a constructive and potentially beneficial therapeutic strategy. We will discuss the role of proteoglycans in selected and emerging areas of proteoglycan science, such as neurodegenerative diseases, autophagy, angiogenesis, cancer, infections and their impact on mammalian diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Xie
- Department of Pathology and Genomic Medicine, the Translational Cellular Oncology Program, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Sidney Kimmel Medical College at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Liliana Schaefer
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Renato V. Iozzo
- Department of Pathology and Genomic Medicine, the Translational Cellular Oncology Program, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Sidney Kimmel Medical College at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
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3
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Xu D, Zhou J, Soon WL, Kutzli I, Molière A, Diedrich S, Radiom M, Handschin S, Li B, Li L, Sturla SJ, Ewald CY, Mezzenga R. Food amyloid fibrils are safe nutrition ingredients based on in-vitro and in-vivo assessment. Nat Commun 2023; 14:6806. [PMID: 37884488 PMCID: PMC10603083 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-42486-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Food protein amyloid fibrils have superior technological, nutritional, sensorial, and physical properties compared to native monomers, but there is as yet insufficient understanding of their digestive fate and safety for wide consumption. By combining SDS-PAGE, ELISA, fluorescence, AFM, MALDI-MS, CD, microfluidics, and SAXS techniques for the characterization of β-lactoglobulin and lysozyme amyloid fibrils subjected to in-vitro gastrointestinal digestion, here we show that either no noticeable conformational differences exist between amyloid aggregates and their monomer counterparts after the gastrointestinal digestion process (as in β-lactoglobulin), or that amyloid fibrils are digested significantly better than monomers (as in lysozyme). Moreover, in-vitro exposure of human cell lines and in-vivo studies with C. elegans and mouse models, indicate that the digested fibrils present no observable cytotoxicity, physiological abnormalities in health-span, nor accumulation of fibril-induced plaques in brain nor other organs. These extensive in-vitro and in-vivo studies together suggest that the digested food amyloids are at least equally as safe as those obtained from the digestion of corresponding native monomers, pointing to food amyloid fibrils as potential ingredients for human nutrition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Xu
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Green Processing of Natural Products and Product Safety, Engineering Research Center of Starch and Plant Protein Deep Processing, Ministry of Education, South China University of Technology, 381 Wushan Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou, 510640, China
- Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health (IFNH), Department of Health Sciences and Technology (HEST), ETH Zurich, Zürich, 8092, Switzerland
| | - Jiangtao Zhou
- Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health (IFNH), Department of Health Sciences and Technology (HEST), ETH Zurich, Zürich, 8092, Switzerland.
| | - Wei Long Soon
- Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health (IFNH), Department of Health Sciences and Technology (HEST), ETH Zurich, Zürich, 8092, Switzerland
- Center for Sustainable Materials (SusMat), School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Ines Kutzli
- Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health (IFNH), Department of Health Sciences and Technology (HEST), ETH Zurich, Zürich, 8092, Switzerland
| | - Adrian Molière
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Department of Health Sciences and Technology (HEST), ETH Zurich, Schwerzenbach, Switzerland
| | - Sabine Diedrich
- Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health (IFNH), Department of Health Sciences and Technology (HEST), ETH Zurich, Zürich, 8092, Switzerland
| | - Milad Radiom
- Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health (IFNH), Department of Health Sciences and Technology (HEST), ETH Zurich, Zürich, 8092, Switzerland
- Laboratory of Food Immunology, Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health, ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Stephan Handschin
- Scientific Center for Optical and Electron Microscopy (ScopeM), ETH Zurich, Otto-Stern-Weg 3, 8093, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Bing Li
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Green Processing of Natural Products and Product Safety, Engineering Research Center of Starch and Plant Protein Deep Processing, Ministry of Education, South China University of Technology, 381 Wushan Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Lin Li
- School of Food Science and Engineering, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Green Processing of Natural Products and Product Safety, Engineering Research Center of Starch and Plant Protein Deep Processing, Ministry of Education, South China University of Technology, 381 Wushan Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Shana J Sturla
- Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health (IFNH), Department of Health Sciences and Technology (HEST), ETH Zurich, Zürich, 8092, Switzerland
| | - Collin Y Ewald
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Department of Health Sciences and Technology (HEST), ETH Zurich, Schwerzenbach, Switzerland
| | - Raffaele Mezzenga
- Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health (IFNH), Department of Health Sciences and Technology (HEST), ETH Zurich, Zürich, 8092, Switzerland.
- Department of Materials, ETH Zurich, Zürich, 8092, Switzerland.
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Eker F, Bolat E, Pekdemir B, Duman H, Karav S. Lactoferrin: neuroprotection against Parkinson's disease and secondary molecule for potential treatment. Front Aging Neurosci 2023; 15:1204149. [PMID: 37731953 PMCID: PMC10508234 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2023.1204149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second-most common neurodegenerative disease and is largely caused by the death of dopaminergic (DA) cells. Dopamine loss occurs in the substantia nigra pars compacta and leads to dysfunctions in motor functions. Death of DA cells can occur with oxidative stress and dysfunction of glial cells caused by Parkinson-related gene mutations. Lactoferrin (Lf) is a multifunctional glycoprotein that is usually known for its presence in milk, but recent research shows that Lf is also found in the brain regions. 1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) is a known mitochondrial toxin that disturbs the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) system and increases the rate of reactive oxygen species. Lf's high affinity for metals decreases the required iron for the Fenton reaction, reduces the oxidative damage to DA cells caused by MPTP, and increases their surveillance rate. Several studies also investigated Lf's effect on neurons that are treated with MPTP. The results pointed out that Lf's protective effect can also be observed without the presence of oxidative stress; thus, several potential mechanisms are currently being researched, starting with a potential HSPG-Lf interaction in the cellular membrane of DA cells. The presence of Lf activity in the brain region also showed that lactoferrin initiates receptor-mediated transcytosis in the blood-brain barrier (BBB) with the existence of lactoferrin receptors in the endothelial cells. The existence of Lf receptors both in endothelial cells and DA cells created the idea of using Lf as a secondary molecule in the transport of therapeutic agents across the BBB, especially in nanoparticle development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Sercan Karav
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Çanakkale, Türkiye
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Gorecki AM, Spencer H, Meloni BP, Anderton RS. The Poly-Arginine Peptide R18D Interferes with the Internalisation of α-Synuclein Pre-Formed Fibrils in STC-1 Enteroendocrine Cells. Biomedicines 2023; 11:2089. [PMID: 37626586 PMCID: PMC10452853 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11082089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Revised: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
In Parkinson's disease (PD), gut inflammation is hypothesised to contribute to α-synuclein aggregation, but gastrointestinal α-synuclein expression is poorly characterised. Cationic arginine-rich peptides (CARPs) are an emerging therapeutic option that exerts various neuroprotective effects and may target the transmission of protein aggregates. This study aimed to investigate endogenous α-synuclein expression in enteroendocrine STC-1 cells and the potential of the CARP, R18D (18-mer of D-arginine), to prevent internalisation of pre-formed α-synuclein fibrils (PFFs) in enteroendocrine cells in vitro. Through confocal microscopy, the immunoreactivity of full-length α-synuclein and the serine-129 phosphorylated form (pS129) was investigated in STC-1 (mouse enteroendocrine) cells. Thereafter, STC-1 cells were exposed to PFFs tagged with Alexa-Fluor 488 (PFF-488) for 2 and 24 h and R18D-FITC for 10 min. After confirming the uptake of both PFFs and R18D-FITC through fluorescent microscopy, STC-1 cells were pre-treated with R18D (5 or 10 μM) for 10 min prior to 2 h of PFF-488 exposure. Immunoreactivity for endogenous α-synuclein and pS129 was evident in STC-1 cells, with prominent pS129 staining along cytoplasmic processes and in perinuclear areas. STC-1 cells internalised PFFs, confirmed through co-localisation of PFF-488 and human-specific α-synuclein immunoreactivity. R18D-FITC entered STC-1 cells within 10 min and pre-treatment of STC-1 cells with R18D interfered with PFF uptake. The endogenous presence of α-synuclein in enteroendocrine cells, coupled with their rapid uptake of PFFs, demonstrates a potential for pathogenic spread of α-synuclein aggregates in the gut. R18D is a novel therapeutic approach to reduce the intercellular transmission of α-synuclein pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastazja M. Gorecki
- School of Health Sciences, University of Notre Dame Australia, Fremantle, WA 6160, Australia; (H.S.)
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
- Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Science, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Holly Spencer
- School of Health Sciences, University of Notre Dame Australia, Fremantle, WA 6160, Australia; (H.S.)
| | - Bruno P. Meloni
- Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Science, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia
- Centre for Neuromuscular and Neurological Disorders, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia
- Department of Neurosurgery, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, First Floor, G-Block, QEII Medical Centre, Nedlands, WA 6008, Australia
| | - Ryan S. Anderton
- School of Health Sciences, University of Notre Dame Australia, Fremantle, WA 6160, Australia; (H.S.)
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Chen M, Mor DE. Gut-to-Brain α-Synuclein Transmission in Parkinson's Disease: Evidence for Prion-like Mechanisms. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24087205. [PMID: 37108366 PMCID: PMC10139032 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24087205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Revised: 04/10/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a multifactorial disorder involving both motor and non-motor symptoms caused by the progressive death of distinct neuronal populations, including dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. The deposition of aggregated α-synuclein protein into Lewy body inclusions is a hallmark of the disorder, and α-synuclein pathology has been found in the enteric nervous system (ENS) of PD patients up to two decades prior to diagnosis. In combination with the high occurrence of gastrointestinal dysfunction in early stages of PD, current evidence strongly suggests that some forms of PD may originate in the gut. In this review, we discuss human studies that support ENS Lewy pathology as a characteristic feature of PD, and present evidence from humans and animal model systems that α-synuclein aggregation may follow a prion-like spreading cascade from enteric neurons, through the vagal nerve, and into the brain. Given the accessibility of the human gut to pharmacologic and dietary interventions, therapeutic strategies aimed at reducing pathological α-synuclein in the gastrointestinal tract hold significant promise for PD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Merry Chen
- Department of Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Danielle E Mor
- Department of Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
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7
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Song I, Kuznetsova T, Baidoe-Ansah D, Mirzapourdelavar H, Senkov O, Hayani H, Mironov A, Kaushik R, Druzin M, Johansson S, Dityatev A. Heparan Sulfates Regulate Axonal Excitability and Context Generalization through Ca 2+/Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinase II. Cells 2023; 12:cells12050744. [PMID: 36899880 PMCID: PMC10000602 DOI: 10.3390/cells12050744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Our previous studies demonstrated that enzymatic removal of highly sulfated heparan sulfates with heparinase 1 impaired axonal excitability and reduced expression of ankyrin G at the axon initial segments in the CA1 region of the hippocampus ex vivo, impaired context discrimination in vivo, and increased Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) activity in vitro. Here, we show that in vivo delivery of heparinase 1 in the CA1 region of the hippocampus elevated autophosphorylation of CaMKII 24 h after injection in mice. Patch clamp recording in CA1 neurons revealed no significant heparinase effects on the amplitude or frequency of miniature excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic currents, while the threshold for action potential generation was increased and fewer spikes were generated in response to current injection. Delivery of heparinase on the next day after contextual fear conditioning induced context overgeneralization 24 h after injection. Co-administration of heparinase with the CaMKII inhibitor (autocamtide-2-related inhibitory peptide) rescued neuronal excitability and expression of ankyrin G at the axon initial segment. It also restored context discrimination, suggesting the key role of CaMKII in neuronal signaling downstream of heparan sulfate proteoglycans and highlighting a link between impaired CA1 pyramidal cell excitability and context generalization during recall of contextual memories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inseon Song
- Molecular Neuroplasticity Group, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Tatiana Kuznetsova
- Department of Integrative Medical Biology, Umeå University, 90187 Umeå, Sweden
| | - David Baidoe-Ansah
- Molecular Neuroplasticity Group, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Hadi Mirzapourdelavar
- Molecular Neuroplasticity Group, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Oleg Senkov
- Molecular Neuroplasticity Group, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Hussam Hayani
- Molecular Neuroplasticity Group, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Andrey Mironov
- Molecular Neuroplasticity Group, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Rahul Kaushik
- Molecular Neuroplasticity Group, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Michael Druzin
- Department of Integrative Medical Biology, Umeå University, 90187 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Staffan Johansson
- Department of Integrative Medical Biology, Umeå University, 90187 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Alexander Dityatev
- Molecular Neuroplasticity Group, German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
- Medizinische Fakultät, Otto-von-Güricke-Universität Magdeburg, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
- Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS), 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-391-67-24526; Fax: +49-391-6724530
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Yang H, Wang L. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans in cancer: Pathogenesis and therapeutic potential. Adv Cancer Res 2023; 157:251-291. [PMID: 36725112 DOI: 10.1016/bs.acr.2022.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are glycoproteins that consist of a proteoglycan "core" protein and covalently attached heparan sulfate (HS) chain. HSPGs are ubiquitously expressed in mammalian cells on the cell surface and in the extracellular matrix (ECM) and secretory vesicles. Within HSPGs, the protein cores determine when and where HSPG expression takes place, and the HS chains mediate most of HSPG's biological roles through binding various protein ligands, including cytokines, chemokines, growth factors and receptors, morphogens, proteases, protease inhibitors, and ECM proteins. Through these interactions, HSPGs modulate cell proliferation, adhesion, migration, invasion, and angiogenesis to display essential functions in physiology and pathology. Under physiological conditions, the expression and localization of HSPGs are finely regulated to orchestrate their physiological functions, and this is disrupted in cancer. The HSPG dysregulation elicits multiple oncogenic signaling, including growth factor signaling, ECM and Integrin signaling, chemokine and immune signaling, cancer stem cell, cell differentiation, apoptosis, and senescence, to prompt cell transformation, proliferation, tumor invasion and metastasis, tumor angiogenesis and inflammation, and immunotolerance. These oncogenic roles make HSPGs an attractive pharmacological target for anti-cancer therapy. Several therapeutic strategies have been under development, including anti-HSPG antibodies, peptides and HS mimetics, synthetic xylosides, and heparinase inhibitors, and shown promising anti-cancer efficacy. Therefore, much progress has been made in this line of study. However, it needs to bear in mind that the roles of HSPGs in cancer can be either oncogenic or tumor-suppressive, depending on the HSPG and the cancer cell type with the underlying mechanisms that remain obscure. Further studies need to address these to fill the knowledge gap and rationalize more efficient therapeutic targeting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Yang
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology & Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States
| | - Lianchun Wang
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology & Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States; Bryd Alzheimer's Research Institute, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States.
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Ruf WP, Meirelles J, Danzer KM. Spreading of alpha-synuclein between different cell types. Behav Brain Res 2022; 436:114059. [PMID: 35995264 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2022.114059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Revised: 08/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Aggregation of alpha-synuclein (α-syn) is central in Parkinson's disease as well as in other synucleinopathies. Recent evidence suggests that not only intracellular aggregation of α-syn plays an important role for disease pathogenesis but also cell-to-cell propagation of α-syn seems to significantly contribute to pathological changes in synucleinopathies. In this mini-review we summarize current aspects of spreading of α-syn between brain cell types and its role in pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang P Ruf
- Department of Neurology, University Clinic, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Joao Meirelles
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Ulm, Germany
| | - Karin M Danzer
- Department of Neurology, University Clinic, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Ulm, Germany.
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