Scientific Opinion on the safety and efficacy of micro‐organism DSM 11798 when used as a technological feed additive for pigs

Type B Trichothecenes in Cereal Grains and Their Products: Recent Advances on Occurrence, Toxicology, Analysis and Post-Harvest Decontamination Strategies

Type B trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol) and deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (DON-3G) are secondary toxic metabolites produced mainly by mycotoxigenic Fusarium fungi and have been recognized as natural contaminants in cereals and cereal-based foods. The latest studies have proven the various negative effects of type B trichothecenes on human health. Due to the widespread occurrence of Fusarium species, contamination by these mycotoxins has become an important aspect for public health and agro-food systems worldwide. Hence, their monitoring and surveillance in various foods have received a significant deal of attention in recent years. In this review, an up-to-date overview of the occurrence profile of major type B trichothecenes and DON-3G in cereal grains and their toxicological implications are outlined. Furthermore, current trends in analytical methodologies for their determination are overviewed. This review also covers the factors affecting the production of these mycotoxins, as well as the management strategies currently employed to mitigate their contamination in foods. Information presented in this review provides good insight into the progress that has been achieved in the last years for monitoring type B trichothecenes and DON-3G, and also would help the researchers in their further investigations on metabolic pathway analysis and toxicological studies of these Fusarium mycotoxins.

Possibilities for the Biological Control of Mycotoxins in Food and Feed

Seeking useful biological agents for mycotoxin detoxification has achieved success in the last twenty years thanks to the participation of many multidisciplinary teams. We have recently witnessed discoveries in the fields of bacterial genetics (inclusive of next-generation sequencing), protein encoding, and bioinformatics that have helped to shape the latest perception of how microorganisms/mycotoxins/environmental factors intertwine and interact, so the road is opened for new breakthroughs. Analysis of literature data related to the biological control of mycotoxins indicates the ability of yeast, bacteria, fungi and enzymes to degrade or adsorb mycotoxins, which increases the safety and quality of susceptible crops, animal feed and, ultimately, food of animal origin (milk, meat and eggs) by preventing the presence of residues. Microbial detoxification (transformation and adsorption) is becoming a trustworthy strategy that leaves no or less toxic compounds and contributes to food security. This review summarizes the data and highlights the importance and prospects of these methods.

Overview of the activities of the European Food Safety Authority on mycotoxins in food and feed

Mycotoxins are widely occurring in foods and feeds and dietary exposure to them can induce various types of adverse health effects in humans and animals. Since its establishment in 2002, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has assessed risks of dietary exposure to mycotoxins for public health and for the health of farm and companion animals on the request of the European Commission and has assessed safety and efficacy of feed additives for the reduction of contamination of feed by mycotoxins within the European Union authorisation process for feed additives. Over 40 scientific opinions on risks of mycotoxins for human and animal health and other reports on mycotoxins have been issued by the authority for the use of the European risk managers. Mycotoxins belong to one of the important areas of the EFSA work. Occurrence data on mycotoxins submitted to EFSA by the European national food safety bodies and research institutions have been collected in the EFSA databases and have informed its scientific opinions and reports on mycotoxins. Similarly, many EFSA-funded projects conducted by the European research organisations, not only to generate data on occurrence, but also data on toxicity of mycotoxins, have provided valuable information for the risk assessments of EFSA. Aflatoxin and deoxynivalenol are the mycotoxins, for which EFSA has delivered most of its scientific mycotoxin opinions. Very recently also modified forms of mycotoxins have been included in the EFSA risk assessments. In this review paper an overview of many different EFSA activities on mycotoxins is given. It also includes a brief description how EFSA develops its scientific opinions and works.

Detoxification of trichothecene mycotoxins by a novel bacterium, Eggerthella sp. DII-9

Trichothecene mycotoxins are a group of structurally related sesquiterpenoid metabolites produced by multiple Fusarium species that often contaminate cereals and threaten human and animal health. The basic structure of this mycotoxin group is a characteristic 12, 13-epoxide group, which is considered an essential functional group for toxicity. In this study, using trichothecene mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) as a representative substrate, we identified a novel trichothecene deepoxidation bacterium, Eggerthella sp. DII-9 (DII-9), from chicken intestines. DII-9 can grow and transform DON over abroad range of temperatures (20-45 °C) and pH values (5-10), suggesting the possibility of developing promising future applications as feed additives. Substrate specificity analysis showed that DII-9 is capable of promoting the deepoxidation of DON, HT-2, T-2 triol and T-2 tetraol. To explore the molecular mechanisms of the de-epoxidation of trichothecenes, the complete genome of DII-9 was sequenced and characterized. Altogether, a novel detoxification bacterium for trichothecene mycotoxins was identified and characterized.

Effects of deoxynivalenol (DON) and its microbial biotransformation product deepoxy-deoxynivalenol (DOM-1) on a trout, pig, mouse, and human cell line

Deoxynivalenol (DON), a trichothecene produced by various Fusarium species, is one of the most prevalent food- and feed-associated mycotoxins. The effects of DON and deepoxy-deoxynivalenol (DOM-1) were assessed in five different cell lines from different tissues and species starting from the first line of defense, the trout gill (RTgill-W1) and pig intestinal cells (IPEC-1 and IPEC-J2) over immune cells, as second line of defense (mouse macrophages RAW 264.7) to human liver cells (HepG2). Viability was assessed with a WST-1 assay, except for RTgill-W1, where a neutral red (NR) and sulforhodamine B (SRB) assay was performed. Additionally, more sensitive parameters, such as interleukin-, nitric oxide (NO)-, and albumin-release were determined. Viability was affected by DON at concentrations starting at 10 μmol/L (RTgill-W1), 0.9 μmol/L (IPEC-1), 3.5 μmol/L (IPEC-J2), and 0.9 μmol/L (HepG2), whereas DOM-1 did not have such an effect. Additionally, NO was decreased (0.84 μmol/L DON), whereas interleukin (IL)-6 was increased (0.42 μmol/L DON) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated DON-, but not DOM-1-treated RAW cells. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α release, however, was not affected. Interestingly, albumin secretion of HepG2 cells was decreased by both DON and DOM-1 but at a much higher concentration for DOM-1 (228 versus 0.9 μmol/L for DON). 98.9% of DOM-1 was retrieved by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry at the end of the experiment, proving its stability. In this study, IL-6 was the most sensitive parameter, followed by NO and albumin release and viability for HepG2 and IPEC-1.

Safety and efficacy of microorganism DSM 11798 as a technological additive for all avian species

Biomin® BBSH 797 is the trade name for a feed additive containing viable cells of an unnamed bacterium (DSM 11798). The EFSA Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP) produced an opinion on the safety and efficacy of this additive when used with pigs concluding that the additive itself did not raise any safety concern. It was confirmed that the additive could reduce the trichothecene, deoxynivalenol (DON), producing the less toxic de-epoxy metabolite. The applicant is now seeking authorisation for the use of the additive in feed for all avian species and, since the current authorisation only covers DON, the amending of this authorisation to include all trichothecene mycotoxins. Chickens and turkeys for fattening and laying hens showed no adverse effects when the additive was added to diets at 1000 times the recommended dose. Consequently, the additive is considered safe for these species/categories when used at the recommended dose of 1.7 × 108 colony-forming units (CFU)/kg complete feed. This conclusion is extended to all avian species. The use of the additive in feed for all avian species is not expected to introduce concerns for consumers, users or the environment not previously considered. In vitro and in vivo studies showed that the inclusion of the additive at the recommended dose of 1.7 × 108 CFU/kg was effective in reducing contaminating DON in feed when given to avian species with a concomitant production of the less toxic de-epoxy metabolite. The additive was shown to reduce the 12,13-epoxide group of representative trichothecenes. It would be reasonable to assume a similar reaction with other mycotoxins of the same structural type independent of the animal species or category receiving contaminated feed. The additive is compatible with the coccidiostats monensin sodium, salinomycin sodium, narasin, narasin/nicarbazin, nicarbazin, robenidine hydrochloride and diclazuril.

A review of the efficacy of mycotoxin detoxifying agents used in feed in light of changing global environment and legislation

In the recent years, mycotoxins have undoubtedly gained a keen interest of the scientific community studying food safety. The main reason is their profound impact on both human and animal health. International surveys reveal a low percentage of feed samples being contaminated above permitted/guideline levels, developed to protect consumers of animal derived products. However, the deleterious impact of feed co-contaminated at low levels with numerous both known and regulated as well as novel mycotoxins on producing animals has been described. Associated effects on agro-economics world-wide include substantial pecuniary losses which are borne by the society as a whole. Even though good agronomic practice is thought to be the most effective way of preventing animal feed contamination, the EC have recognised the need to introduce an additional means of management of feed already contaminated with low-levels of mycotoxins to alleviate detrimental effects on agricultural production efficiency. This review discusses types of feed detoxifying agents described in scientific literature, their reported efficacy in both in vitro and in vivo systems, and comparison with available commercial formulations in the light of increasing knowledge regarding mycotoxin prevalence in the changing global environment.