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Chan LLY, Gamage AM, Tan CW, Tan KS, Liu J, Tay DJW, Foo RJH, Rénia L, Wang DY, Wang LF. Generation of self-replicating airway organoids from the cave nectar bat Eonycteris spelaea as a model system for studying host-pathogen interactions in the bat airway epithelium. Emerg Microbes Infect 2023; 12:e2148561. [PMID: 36440480 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2022.2148561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Bats are reservoir hosts for various zoonotic viruses with pandemdic potential in humans and livestock. In vitro systems for studying bat host-pathogen interactions are of significant interest. Here, we establish protocols to generate bat airway organoids (AOs) and airway epithelial cells differentiated at the air-liquid interface (ALI-AECs) from tracheal tissues of the cave-nectar bat Eonycteris spelaea. In particular, we describe steps which enable laboratories that do not have access to live bats to perform extended experimental work upon procuring an initial batch of bat primary airway tissue. Complete mucociliary differentiation required treatment with IL-13. E. spelaea ALI-AECs supported productive infection with PRV3M, an orthoreovirus for which Pteropodid bats are considered the reservoir species. However, these ALI-AECs did not support SARS-CoV-2 infection, despite E. spelaea ACE2 receptor being capable of mediating SARS-CoV-2 spike pseudovirus entry. This work provides critical model systems for assessing bat species-specific virus susceptibility and the reservoir likelihood for emerging infectious agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louisa L Y Chan
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Akshamal M Gamage
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore
| | - Chee Wah Tan
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore
| | - Kai Sen Tan
- Department of Otolaryngology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore.,Infectious Diseases Translational Research Program, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore.,Biosafety level 3 Core Facility, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Health System, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jing Liu
- Department of Otolaryngology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore.,Infectious Diseases Translational Research Program, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Douglas Jie Wen Tay
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore.,Biosafety level 3 Core Facility, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University Health System, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Randy Jee Hiang Foo
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore
| | - Laurent Rénia
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.,A*STAR Infectious Diseases Labs (A*STAR ID Labs), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore
| | - De Yun Wang
- Department of Otolaryngology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore.,Infectious Diseases Translational Research Program, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Lin-Fa Wang
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore.,Singhealth Duke-NUS Global Health Institute, Singapore
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2
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Burke B, Rocha SM, Zhan S, Eckley M, Reasoner C, Addetia A, Lewis J, Fagre A, Charley PA, Richt JA, Weiss SR, Tjalkens RB, Veesler D, Aboellail T, Schountz T. Regulatory T cell-like response to SARS-CoV-2 in Jamaican fruit bats (Artibeus jamaicensis) transduced with human ACE2. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011728. [PMID: 37856551 PMCID: PMC10617724 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2023] [Revised: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Insectivorous Old World horseshoe bats (Rhinolophus spp.) are the likely source of the ancestral SARS-CoV-2 prior to its spillover into humans and causing the COVID-19 pandemic. Natural coronavirus infections of bats appear to be principally confined to the intestines, suggesting fecal-oral transmission; however, little is known about the biology of SARS-related coronaviruses in bats. Previous experimental challenges of Egyptian fruit bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) resulted in limited infection restricted to the respiratory tract, whereas insectivorous North American big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus) showed no evidence of infection. In the present study, we challenged Jamaican fruit bats (Artibeus jamaicensis) with SARS-CoV-2 to determine their susceptibility. Infection was confined to the intestine for only a few days with prominent viral nucleocapsid antigen in epithelial cells, and mononuclear cells of the lamina propria and Peyer's patches, but with no evidence of infection of other tissues; none of the bats showed visible signs of disease or seroconverted. Expression levels of ACE2 were low in the lungs, which may account for the lack of pulmonary infection. Bats were then intranasally inoculated with a replication-defective adenovirus encoding human ACE2 and 5 days later challenged with SARS-CoV-2. Viral antigen was prominent in lungs for up to 14 days, with loss of pulmonary cellularity during this time; however, the bats did not exhibit weight loss or visible signs of disease. From day 7, bats had low to moderate IgG antibody titers to spike protein by ELISA, and one bat on day 10 had low-titer neutralizing antibodies. CD4+ helper T cells became activated upon ex vivo recall stimulation with SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid peptide library and exhibited elevated mRNA expression of the regulatory T cell cytokines interleukin-10 and transforming growth factor-β, which may have limited inflammatory pathology. Collectively, these data show that Jamaican fruit bats are poorly susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 but that expression of human ACE2 in their lungs leads to robust infection and an adaptive immune response with low-titer antibodies and a regulatory T cell-like response that may explain the lack of prominent inflammation in the lungs. This model will allow for insight of how SARS-CoV-2 infects bats and how bat innate and adaptive immune responses engage the virus without overt clinical disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradly Burke
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Savannah M. Rocha
- Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Shijun Zhan
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Miles Eckley
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Clara Reasoner
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Amin Addetia
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Juliette Lewis
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Anna Fagre
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Phillida A. Charley
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Juergen A. Richt
- Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, Center of Excellence for Emerging and Zoonotic Animal Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, United States of America
| | - Susan R. Weiss
- Department of Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Ronald B. Tjalkens
- Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - David Veesler
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Tawfik Aboellail
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Tony Schountz
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
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Ruhs EC, Chia WN, Foo R, Peel AJ, Li Y, Larman HB, Irving AT, Wang L, Brook CE. Applications of VirScan to broad serological profiling of bat reservoirs for emerging zoonoses. Front Public Health 2023; 11:1212018. [PMID: 37808979 PMCID: PMC10559906 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1212018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Bats are important providers of ecosystem services such as pollination, seed dispersal, and insect control but also act as natural reservoirs for virulent zoonotic viruses. Bats host multiple viruses that cause life-threatening pathology in other animals and humans but, themselves, experience limited pathological disease from infection. Despite bats' importance as reservoirs for several zoonotic viruses, we know little about the broader viral diversity that they host. Bat virus surveillance efforts are challenged by difficulties of field capture and the limited scope of targeted PCR- or ELISA-based molecular and serological detection. Additionally, virus shedding is often transient, thus also limiting insights gained from nucleic acid testing of field specimens. Phage ImmunoPrecipitation Sequencing (PhIP-Seq), a broad serological tool used previously to comprehensively profile viral exposure history in humans, offers an exciting prospect for viral surveillance efforts in wildlife, including bats. Methods Here, for the first time, we apply PhIP-Seq technology to bat serum, using a viral peptide library originally designed to simultaneously assay exposures to the entire human virome. Results Using VirScan, we identified past exposures to 57 viral genera-including betacoronaviruses, henipaviruses, lyssaviruses, and filoviruses-in semi-captive Pteropus alecto and to nine viral genera in captive Eonycteris spelaea. Consistent with results from humans, we find that both total peptide hits (the number of enriched viral peptides in our library) and the corresponding number of inferred past virus exposures in bat hosts were correlated with poor bat body condition scores and increased with age. High and low body condition scores were associated with either seropositive or seronegative status for different viruses, though in general, virus-specific age-seroprevalence curves defied assumptions of lifelong immunizing infection, suggesting that many bat viruses may circulate via complex transmission dynamics. Discussion Overall, our work emphasizes the utility of applying biomedical tools, like PhIP-Seq, first developed for humans to viral surveillance efforts in wildlife, while highlighting opportunities for taxon-specific improvements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Cornelius Ruhs
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
- Grainger Bioinformatics Center, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Wan Ni Chia
- Program in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
- CoV Biotechnology Pte Ltd., Singapore, Singapore
| | - Randy Foo
- Program in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Alison J. Peel
- Centre for Planetary Health and Food Security, School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Brisband, QLD, Australia
| | - Yimei Li
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
- Quantitative and Computational Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, United States
| | - H. Benjamin Larman
- HBL – Institute for Cell Engineering, Division of Immunology, Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Aaron T. Irving
- Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
- Zhejiang University-University of Edinburgh Institute, Haining, Zhejiang, China
- BIMET - Biomedical and Translational Research Centre of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Linfa Wang
- Program in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
- SingHealth Duke-NUS Global Health Institute, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Cara E. Brook
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
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Paskey AC, Lim XF, Ng JHJ, Rice GK, Chia WN, Philipson CW, Foo R, Cer RZ, Long KA, Lueder MR, Glang L, Frey KG, Hamilton T, Mendenhall IH, Smith GJ, Anderson DE, Wang LF, Bishop-Lilly KA. Genomic Characterization of a Relative of Mumps Virus in Lesser Dawn Bats of Southeast Asia. Viruses 2023; 15:v15030659. [PMID: 36992368 PMCID: PMC10053730 DOI: 10.3390/v15030659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The importance of genomic surveillance on emerging diseases continues to be highlighted with the ongoing SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Here, we present an analysis of a new bat-borne mumps virus (MuV) in a captive colony of lesser dawn bats (Eonycteris spelaea). This report describes an investigation of MuV-specific data originally collected as part of a longitudinal virome study of apparently healthy, captive lesser dawn bats in Southeast Asia (BioProject ID PRJNA561193) which was the first report of a MuV-like virus, named dawn bat paramyxovirus (DbPV), in bats outside of Africa. More in-depth analysis of these original RNA sequences in the current report reveals that the new DbPV genome shares only 86% amino acid identity with the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of its closest relative, the African bat-borne mumps virus (AbMuV). While there is no obvious immediate cause for concern, it is important to continue investigating and monitoring bat-borne MuVs to determine the risk of human infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian C. Paskey
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Department, Biological Defense Research Directorate, Naval Medical Research Center-Frederick, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
- Leidos, Reston, VA 20190, USA
| | - Xiao Fang Lim
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore
| | - Justin H. J. Ng
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore
| | - Gregory K. Rice
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Department, Biological Defense Research Directorate, Naval Medical Research Center-Frederick, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
- Leidos, Reston, VA 20190, USA
| | - Wan Ni Chia
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore
| | - Casandra W. Philipson
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Department, Biological Defense Research Directorate, Naval Medical Research Center-Frederick, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
- Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, VA 22060, USA
| | - Randy Foo
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore
| | - Regina Z. Cer
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Department, Biological Defense Research Directorate, Naval Medical Research Center-Frederick, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Kyle A. Long
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Department, Biological Defense Research Directorate, Naval Medical Research Center-Frederick, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
- Leidos, Reston, VA 20190, USA
| | - Matthew R. Lueder
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Department, Biological Defense Research Directorate, Naval Medical Research Center-Frederick, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
- Leidos, Reston, VA 20190, USA
| | - Lindsay Glang
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Department, Biological Defense Research Directorate, Naval Medical Research Center-Frederick, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
- Leidos, Reston, VA 20190, USA
| | - Kenneth G. Frey
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Department, Biological Defense Research Directorate, Naval Medical Research Center-Frederick, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Theron Hamilton
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Department, Biological Defense Research Directorate, Naval Medical Research Center-Frederick, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Ian H. Mendenhall
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore
| | - Gavin J. Smith
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore
| | - Danielle E. Anderson
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory, The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - Lin-Fa Wang
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore
| | - Kimberly A. Bishop-Lilly
- Genomics and Bioinformatics Department, Biological Defense Research Directorate, Naval Medical Research Center-Frederick, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
- Correspondence:
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5
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Burke B, Rocha SM, Zhan S, Eckley M, Reasoner C, Addetia A, Lewis J, Fagre A, Charley P, Richt JA, Weiss SR, Tjalkens RB, Veesler D, Aboellail T, Schountz T. Regulatory T Cell-like Response to SARS-CoV-2 in Jamaican Fruit Bats ( Artibeus jamaicensis ) Transduced with Human ACE2. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.02.13.528205. [PMID: 36824814 PMCID: PMC9949052 DOI: 10.1101/2023.02.13.528205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Insectivorous Old World horseshoe bats ( Rhinolophus spp.) are the likely source of the ancestral SARS-CoV-2 prior to its spillover into humans and causing the COVID-19 pandemic. Natural coronavirus infections of bats appear to be principally confined to the intestines, suggesting fecal-oral transmission; however, little is known about the biology of SARS-related coronaviruses in bats. Previous experimental challenges of Egyptian fruit bats ( Rousettus aegyptiacus ) resulted in limited infection restricted to the respiratory tract, whereas insectivorous North American big brown bats ( Eptesicus fuscus ) showed no evidence of infection. In the present study, we challenged Jamaican fruit bats ( Artibeus jamaicensis ) with SARS-CoV-2 to determine their susceptibility. Infection was confined to the intestine for only a few days with prominent viral nucleocapsid antigen in epithelial cells, and mononuclear cells of the lamina propria and Peyer's patches, but with no evidence of infection of other tissues; none of the bats showed visible signs of disease or seroconverted. Expression levels of ACE2 were low in the lungs, which may account for the lack of pulmonary infection. Bats were then intranasally inoculated with a replication-defective adenovirus encoding human ACE2 and 5 days later challenged with SARS-CoV-2. Viral antigen was prominent in lungs for up to 14 days, with loss of pulmonary cellularity during this time; however, the bats did not exhibit weight loss or visible signs of disease. From day 7, bats had low to moderate IgG antibody titers to spike protein by ELISA, and one bat on day 10 had low-titer neutralizing antibodies. CD4 + helper T cells became activated upon ex vivo recall stimulation with SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid peptide library and exhibited elevated mRNA expression of the regulatory T cell cytokines interleukin-10 and transforming growth factor-β, which may have limited inflammatory pathology. Collectively, these data show that Jamaican fruit bats are poorly susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 but that expression of human ACE2 in their lungs leads to robust infection and an adaptive immune response with low-titer antibodies and a regulatory T cell-like response that may explain the lack of prominent inflammation in the lungs. This model will allow for insight of how SARS-CoV-2 infects bats and how bat innate and adaptive immune responses engage the virus without overt clinical disease. Author Summary Bats are reservoir hosts of many viruses that infect humans, yet little is known about how they host these viruses, principally because of a lack of relevant and susceptible bat experimental infection models. Although SARS-CoV-2 originated in bats, no robust infection models of bats have been established. We determined that Jamaican fruit bats are poorly susceptible to SARS-CoV-2; however, their lungs can be transduced with human ACE2, which renders them susceptible to SARS-CoV-2. Despite robust infection of the lungs and diminishment of pulmonary cellularity, the bats showed no overt signs of disease and cleared the infection after two weeks. Despite clearance of infection, only low-titer antibody responses occurred and only a single bat made neutralizing antibody. Assessment of the CD4 + helper T cell response showed that activated cells expressed the regulatory T cell cytokines IL-10 and TGFβ that may have tempered pulmonary inflammation.
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Gamage AM, Chan WOY, Zhu F, Lim YT, Long S, Ahn M, Tan CW, Hiang Foo RJ, Sia WR, Lim XF, He H, Zhai W, Anderson DE, Sobota RM, Dutertre CA, Wang LF. Single-cell transcriptome analysis of the in vivo response to viral infection in the cave nectar bat Eonycteris spelaea. Immunity 2022; 55:2187-2205.e5. [PMID: 36351376 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2022.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Revised: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Bats are reservoir hosts of many zoonotic viruses with pandemic potential. We utilized single-cell transcriptome sequencing (scRNA-seq) to analyze the immune response in bat lungs upon in vivo infection with a double-stranded RNA virus, Pteropine orthoreovirus PRV3M. Bat neutrophils were distinguished by high basal IDO1 expression. NK cells and T cells were the most abundant immune cells in lung tissue. Three distinct CD8+ effector T cell populations could be delineated by differential expression of KLRB1, GFRA2, and DPP4. Select NK and T clusters increased expression of genes involved in T cell activation and effector function early after viral infection. Alveolar macrophages and classical monocytes drove antiviral interferon signaling. Infection expanded a CSF1R+ population expressing collagen-like genes, which became the predominant myeloid cell type post-infection. This work uncovers features relevant to viral disease tolerance in bats, lays a foundation for future experimental work, and serves as a resource for comparative immunology studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akshamal M Gamage
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Wharton O Y Chan
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Feng Zhu
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yan Ting Lim
- Functional Proteomics Laboratory, SingMass National Laboratory, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A∗STAR), Singapore, Singapore
| | - Sandy Long
- Functional Proteomics Laboratory, SingMass National Laboratory, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A∗STAR), Singapore, Singapore
| | - Matae Ahn
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Chee Wah Tan
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Randy Jee Hiang Foo
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Wan Rong Sia
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Xiao Fang Lim
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Haopeng He
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, P.R. China
| | - Weiwei Zhai
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, P.R. China; Center for Excellence in Animal Evolution and Genetics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650223, P.R. China; Human Genetics, Genome Institute of Singapore, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, 138672, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Danielle E Anderson
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne 3000, Victoria, Australia
| | - Radoslaw Mikolaj Sobota
- Functional Proteomics Laboratory, SingMass National Laboratory, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A∗STAR), Singapore, Singapore
| | - Charles-Antoine Dutertre
- Institut National de la Santé Et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1015, Equipe Labellisée-Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Villejuif, France; Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Villejuif, France
| | - Lin-Fa Wang
- Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore; Singhealth Duke-NUS Global Health Institute, Singapore, Singapore.
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