High prevalence of virulence-associated genotypes in Helicobacter pylori clinical isolates in the Region del Maule, Chile

Historical and Molecular Perspectives on the Presence of Helicobacter pylori in Latin America: A Niche to Improve Gastric Cancer Risk Assessment

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is responsible for causing chronic gastritis, which can cause peptic ulcer and premalignant lesions such as atrophic gastritis, intestinal metaplasia, and dysplasia, with the risk of developing gastric cancer. Recent data describe that H. pylori colonizes the gastric mucosa of more than 50% of the world's population; however, this bacterium has been described as infecting the human population since its prehistory. This review focuses on the populations and subpopulations of H. pylori, differentiated by the polymorphisms present in their constitutive and virulence genes. These genes have spread and associated with different human populations, showing variability depending on their geographical distribution, and have evolved together with the human being. The predominant genotypes worldwide, Latin America and Chile, are described to understand the genetic diversity and pathogenicity of H. pylori in different populations and geographic regions. The high similarity in the sequence of virulence genes between H. pylori strains present in Peruvian and Spanish natives in Latin America suggests a European influence. The presence of cagA-positive strains and vacA s1 m1 allelic variants is observed with greater prevalence in Chilean patients with more severe gastrointestinal diseases and is associated with its geographical distribution. These findings highlight the importance of understanding the genetic diversity of H. pylori in different regions of the world for a more accurate assessment of the risk of associated diseases and their potential impact on health.

MALDI-TOF MS and 16S RNA Identification of Culturable Gastric Microbiota: Variability Associated with the Presence of Helicobacter pylori

Helicobacter pylori is the main bacteria associated with gastroduodenal diseases. Recent studies have reported that gastric microbiota might be modified by the H. pylori colonization, favoring gastric lesions′ development. In Chile, the region of La Araucanía concentrates a high risk of gastric cancer associated with Helicobacter pylori colonization, rurality, poverty, and Mapuche ethnicity. Hence, we aimed to identify the culturable gastric microbiota and characterize its variability at different stages of epithelial injury, based on its H. pylori colonization in dyspeptic patients from this Chilean region. Microaerophilic bacteria strains were isolated from antrum biopsies of 155 dyspeptic patients′ biopsies and identified using MALDI-TOF MS or 16sRNA gene sequencing for non-pylori species identification, and UreC gene amplification for H. pylori confirmation. We found 48 species from 18 families, mainly belonging to Neisseriaceae (21.3%), Streptococcaceae (20.0%), Actynomicetaceae (9.0%), Enterobacteriaceae, and Lactobacillaceae (4.5%); however, Streptococcaceae and Actinomycetaceae families showed a significant reduction in samples infected with H. pylori, along with a considerably lower diversity of species. Our results revealed a microbiota modification due to H. pylori colonization associated with the gastric epithelial state, suggesting a potential microbiota role for developing and progressing gastric diseases.

Determination of CagA EPIYA motif in Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with digestive disorder

This study was conducted to identify patterns of cagA EPIYA motifs in H. pylori strains isolated from patients with gastrointestinal diseases in Hospitals of Shahrekord, and investigate the association between these biomarkers and clinical outcomes of gastrointestinal diseases due to H. pylori. In this study, 253 patients with gastrointestinal diseases were studied within 1395–1396. Histopathological investigations and urease test showed that 207 isolates were H. pylori-positive. Then, screening using a molecular technique, PCR, confirmed that 159 isolates had cagA. Finally, the pattern and prevalence of the motifs were determined by PCR and identified a number of motifs were sequenced.

Results of this study showed that the pattern of motifs was as follows: ABC (140 isolates) (93/7%), ABCC (6 isolates) (3/77%), ABCCC (4 isolates) (2/5%), AB (7 isolates) (4/4%), AC (1 isolate) (0/6%), and BC (1 isolate) (0/6%). Sequencing results showed the presence of changed EPIYA motif in some isolates. CM motif sequence was also seen in all isolates. In this study, no significant association was seen between the prevalence rate of different patterns and clinical symptoms (p = 0.71). There is a slight association between the presence of ABC motifs and the type of digestive disorder (p = 0.056). Results indicated that ABC was the most frequently seen pattern however, in such that positive cases of ABC motifs were more common in gastritis. All isolates had kinase phosphorylation region, and the observed pattern in this region was a generally western type (ABC).

Structure and function of Helicobacter pylori CagA, the first-identified bacterial protein involved in human cancer

Chronic infection with Helicobacter pylori cagA-positive strains is the strongest risk factor of gastric cancer. The cagA gene-encoded CagA protein is delivered into gastric epithelial cells via bacterial type IV secretion, where it undergoes tyrosine phosphorylation at the Glu-Pro-Ile-Tyr-Ala (EPIYA) motifs. Delivered CagA then acts as a non-physiological scaffold/hub protein by interacting with multiple host signaling molecules, most notably the pro-oncogenic phosphatase SHP2 and the polarity-regulating kinase PAR1/MARK, in both tyrosine phosphorylation-dependent and -independent manners. CagA-mediated manipulation of intracellular signaling promotes neoplastic transformation of gastric epithelial cells. Transgenic expression of CagA in experimental animals has confirmed the oncogenic potential of the bacterial protein. Structural polymorphism of CagA influences its scaffold function, which may underlie the geographic difference in the incidence of gastric cancer. Since CagA is no longer required for the maintenance of established gastric cancer cells, studying the role of CagA during neoplastic transformation will provide an excellent opportunity to understand molecular processes underlying "Hit-and-Run" carcinogenesis.

Dramatic increase in SHP2 binding activity of Helicobacter pylori Western CagA by EPIYA-C duplication: its implications in gastric carcinogenesis

Infection with cagA-positive Helicobacter pylori is critically associated with the development of gastric cancer. The cagA-encoded CagA is delivered into gastric epithelial cells via type IV secretion, where it interacts with and thereby deregulates the pro-oncogenic phosphatase SHP2. East Asian CagA and Western CagA are two major CagA species produced by H. pylori circulating in East Asian countries and in the rest of the world, respectively. The SHP2 binding site of Western CagA, termed the EPIYA-C segment, variably duplicates and infection with H. pylori carrying Western CagA with multiple EPIYA-C segments is a distinct risk factor of gastric cancer. Here we show that duplication of EPIYA-C from one to two or more increases SHP2 binding of Western CagA by more than one hundredfold. Based on the decisive difference in SHP2 binding, Western CagA can be divided into two types: type I CagA carrying a single EPIYA-C segment and type II CagA carrying multiple EPIYA-C segments. Gastric epithelial cells expressing type II CagA acquire the ability to invade extracellular matrices, a malignant cellular trait associated with deregulated SHP2. A big leap in SHP2 binding activity may therefore provide molecular basis that makes type II Western CagA a distinct gastric cancer risk.

Detection of Helicobacter pylori CagA EPIYA in gastric biopsy specimens and its relation to gastric diseases

CagA of Helicobacter pylori undergoes tyrosine phosphorylation in a region containing differing numbers of repeat sequences (EPIYAs), which can result in a modulation of the inflammatory response. This study investigated whether the presence of CagA EPIYA variations in strains of H. pylori that are positive for this region contributes to differing degrees of disease severity in the gastric mucosa. In this study, 157 H. pylori-positive patients were included, and of those, 40.8% (64/157) were infected with cagA-positive strains, which were assayed for the presence of CagA EPIYA-ABC, EPIYA-ABCC, and EPIYA-ABCCC. Peptic ulcers were significantly more prevalent in patients infected with strains containing CagA EPIYA-ABCC/ABCCC than in those with CagA EPIYA ABC strains (P=0.044). This suggests that the number of repetitions of EPIYA-C influences the development of gastroduodenal lesions, highlighting the importance and usefulness of evaluating the cagA gene sequence when making therapeutic intervention decisions in patients infected with H. pylori.