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Al-Ishaq RK, Abotaleb M, Kubatka P, Kajo K, Büsselberg D. Flavonoids and Their Anti-Diabetic Effects: Cellular Mechanisms and Effects to Improve Blood Sugar Levels. Biomolecules 2019; 9:E430. [PMID: 31480505 PMCID: PMC6769509 DOI: 10.3390/biom9090430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 267] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2019] [Revised: 08/14/2019] [Accepted: 08/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a prevailing global health metabolic disorder, with an alarming incidence rate and a huge burden on health care providers. DM is characterized by the elevation of blood glucose due either to a defect in insulin synthesis, secretion, binding to receptor, or an increase of insulin resistance. The internal and external factors such as obesity, urbanizations, and genetic mutations could increase the risk of developing DM. Flavonoids are phenolic compounds existing as secondary metabolites in fruits and vegetables as well as fungi. Their structure consists of 15 carbon skeletons and two aromatic rings (A and B) connected by three carbon chains. Flavonoids are furtherly classified into 6 subclasses: flavonols, flavones, flavanones, isoflavones, flavanols, and anthocyanidins. Naturally occurring flavonoids possess anti-diabetic effects. As in vitro and animal model's studies demonstrate, they have the ability to prevent diabetes and its complications. The aim of this review is to summarize the current knowledge addressing the antidiabetic effects of dietary flavonoids and their underlying molecular mechanisms on selected pathways: Glucose transporter, hepatic enzymes, tyrosine kinase inhibitor, AMPK, PPAR, and NF-κB. Flavonoids improve the pathogenesis of diabetes and its complications through the regulation of glucose metabolism, hepatic enzymes activities, and a lipid profile. Most studies illustrate a positive role of specific dietary flavonoids on diabetes, but the mechanisms of action and the side effects need more clarification. Overall, more research is needed to provide a better understanding of the mechanisms of diabetes treatment using flavonoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raghad Khalid Al-Ishaq
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medicine-Qatar, Education City, Qatar Foundation, Doha 24144, Qatar
| | - Mariam Abotaleb
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medicine-Qatar, Education City, Qatar Foundation, Doha 24144, Qatar
| | - Peter Kubatka
- Department of Medical Biology and Department of Experimental Carcinogenesis, Division of Oncology, Biomedical Center Martin, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, 03601 Martin, Slovak Republic
| | - Karol Kajo
- Department of Pathology, St. Elizabeth Cancer Institute Hospital, 81250 Bratislava, Slovak Republic
- Biomedical Research Centre, Slovak Academy of Sciences, 81439 Bratislava, Slovak Republic
| | - Dietrich Büsselberg
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medicine-Qatar, Education City, Qatar Foundation, Doha 24144, Qatar.
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Paul KB, Hedge JM, Macherla C, Filer DL, Burgess E, Simmons SO, Crofton KM, Hornung MW. Cross-species analysis of thyroperoxidase inhibition by xenobiotics demonstrates conservation of response between pig and rat. Toxicology 2013; 312:97-107. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2013.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2013] [Revised: 08/02/2013] [Accepted: 08/09/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Kirthana MV, Nawaz Khan F, Sivakumar PM, Doble M, Manivel P, Prabakaran K, Krishnakumar V. Antithyroid agents and QSAR studies: inhibition of lactoperoxidase-catalyzed iodination reaction by isochromene-1-thiones. Med Chem Res 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s00044-013-0475-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Bhabak KP, Bhowmick D. Synthesis and structural characterization of some trisulfide analoges of thiouracil-based antithyroid drugs. J Mol Struct 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2012.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Bhabak KP, Mugesh G. Inhibition of peroxidase-catalyzed protein tyrosine nitration by antithyroid drugs and their analogues. Inorganica Chim Acta 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ica.2010.03.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Tamilselvi A, Mugesh G. Inhibition of Peroxidase-Catalyzed Iodination by Cephalosporins: Metallo-β-Lactamase-Induced Antithyroid Activity of Antibiotics. ChemMedChem 2009; 4:512-6. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.200800371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- Gouriprasanna Roy
- a epartment of Inorganic & Physical Chemistry , Indian Institute of Science , Bangalore, India
| | - Govindasamy Mugesh
- a epartment of Inorganic & Physical Chemistry , Indian Institute of Science , Bangalore, India
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Jayaram PN, Roy G, Mugesh G. Effect of thione—thiol tautomerism on the inhibition of lactoperoxidase by anti-thyroid drugs and their analogues. J CHEM SCI 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/s12039-008-0017-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Roy G, Mugesh G. Selenium Analogues of Antithyroid Drugs – Recent Developments. Chem Biodivers 2008; 5:414-39. [DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.200890042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Roy G, Das D, Mugesh G. Bioinorganic chemistry aspects of the inhibition of thyroid hormone biosynthesis by anti-hyperthyroid drugs. Inorganica Chim Acta 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ica.2006.07.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Roy G, Mugesh G. Bioinorganic chemistry in thyroid gland: effect of antithyroid drugs on peroxidase-catalyzed oxidation and iodination reactions. Bioinorg Chem Appl 2006; 2006:23214. [PMID: 17497002 PMCID: PMC1794076 DOI: 10.1155/bca/2006/23214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2006] [Accepted: 08/29/2006] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Propylthiouracil (PTU) and methimazole (MMI) are the most commonly used antithyroid drugs. The available data suggest that these drugs may block the thyroid hormone synthesis by inhibiting the thyroid peroxidase (TPO) or diverting oxidized iodides away from thyroglobulin. It is also known that PTU inhibits the selenocysteine-containing enzyme ID-1 by reacting with the selenenyl iodide intermediate (E-SeI). In view of the current interest in antithyroid drugs, we have recently carried out biomimetic studies to understand the mechanism by which the antithyroid drugs inhibit the thyroid hormone synthesis and found that the replacement of sulfur with selenium in MMI leads to an interesting compound that may reversibly block the thyroid hormone synthesis. Our recent results on the inhibition of lactoperoxidase (LPO)-catalyzed oxidation and iodination reactions by antithyroid drugs are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gouriprasanna Roy
- Department of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012, India
| | - G. Mugesh
- Department of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012, India
- *G. Mugesh:
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Abstract
This investigation was undertaken to study the effect of methimazole (MMI) on gastric acid secretion and stress and chemically induced gastric ulcer in rats. Acid secretion studies were undertaken using pylorus-ligated rats pretreated with MMI (10-100 mg/kg, i.p.). The effect of orally administered MMI on water-immersion restraint (WIR) stress, indomethacin and ethanol-induced gastric ulcers was also tested. The level of myeloperoxidase (MPO), non-protein sulfhydryls (NP-SH) and gastric wall mucus was measured in the glandular stomach of rats following ethanol-induced gastric lesions. There was a dose-dependent inhibition of gastric acid secretion and ulcerogen induced gastric lesion formation in the MMI treated rats. Our morphological and histological studies showed a complete prevention of ethanol-induced lesions in the rats treated with high dose (100 mg/kg) of MMI. A significant attenuation of ethanol-induced increase in gastric MPO activity, depletion of NP-SH and reduction of gastric wall mucus was also observed in MMI treated rats. These findings clearly suggest the involvement of endogenous pro-inflammatory agents and oxidative stress in mediating the gastroprotective effect of MMI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Al Moutaery
- Clinical Biochemistry Division, Department of Pathology, Armed Forces Hospital, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
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Ferreira ACF, Lisboa PC, Oliveira KJ, Lima LP, Barros IA, Carvalho DP. Inhibition of thyroid type 1 deiodinase activity by flavonoids. Food Chem Toxicol 2002; 40:913-7. [PMID: 12065212 DOI: 10.1016/s0278-6915(02)00064-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Some dietary flavonoids inhibit thyroperoxidase and hepatic deiodinase activity, indicating that these compounds could be classified as anti-thyroid agents. In this study, we evaluated the in vitro effect of various flavonoids on thyroid type 1 iodothyronine deiodinase activity (D1). D1 activity was measured in murine thyroid microsome fractions by the release of 125I from 125I-reverse T3. D1 activity was significantly inhibited by all the flavonoids tested; however, the inhibitory potencies on thyroid D1 activity differed greatly among them. A 50% inhibition of D1 activity (IC(50)) was obtained at 11 microM baicalein, 13 microM quercetin, 17 microM catechin, 55 microM morin, 68 microM rutin, 70 microM fisetin, 72 microM kaempferol and 77 microM biochanin A. Our data reinforce the concept that dietary flavonoids might behave as antithyroid agents, and possibly their chronic consumption could alter thyroid function.
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Affiliation(s)
- A C F Ferreira
- Laboratório de Fisiologia Endócrina, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Abstract
The family of human peroxidases described includes myeloperoxidase, eosinophil peroxidase, uterine peroxidase, lactoperoxidase, salivary peroxidase, thyroid peroxidase and prostaglandin H1/2 synthases. The chemical identity of the peroxidase compound I and II oxidation states for the different peroxidases are compared. The identities of the distal and proximal amino acids of the catalytic site of each peroxidase are also compared. The gene characteristics and chromosomal location of the human peroxidase family have been tabulated and their molecular evolution discussed. Myeloperoxidase polymorphism and the mutations identified so far that affect myeloperoxidase activity and modulate their susceptibility to disease is described. The mechanisms for hypohalous and hypothiocyanate formation by the various peroxidases have been compared. The cellular function of the peroxidases and their hypohalites have been described as well as their inflammatory effects. The peroxidase catalysed cooxidation of drugs and xenobiotics that results in oxygen activation by redox cycling has been included. Low-density lipoprotein oxidation (initiation of atherosclerosis), chemical carcinogenesis, idiosyncratic drug reactions (e.g. agranulocytosis), liver necrosis or teratogenicity initiated by the cooxidation of endogenous substrates, plasma amino acids, drugs and xenobiotics catalysed by peroxidases or peroxidase containing cells have also been compared. Finally, peroxidase inhibitors currently in use for treating various diseases are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- P J O'Brien
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, 19 Russell Street, Ont., M5S 2S2, Toronto, Canada.
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Abstract
Plant flavonoids are common dietary components that have many potent biological properties. Early studies of these compounds investigated their mutagenic and genotoxic activity in a number of in vitro assays. Recently, a renewed interest in flavonoids has been fueled by the antioxidant and estrogenic effects ascribed to them. This has led to their proposed use as anticarcinogens and cardioprotective agents, prompting a dramatic increase in their consumption as dietary supplements. Unfortunately, the potentially toxic effects of excessive flavonoid intake are largely ignored. At higher doses, flavonoids may act as mutagens, pro-oxidants that generate free radicals, and as inhibitors of key enzymes involved in hormone metabolism. Thus, in high doses, the adverse effects of flavonoids may outweigh their beneficial ones, and caution should be exercised in ingesting them at levels above that which would be obtained from a typical vegetarian diet. The unborn fetus may be especially at risk, since flavonoids readily cross the placenta. More research on the toxicological properties of flavonoids is warranted given their increasing levels of consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- C F Skibola
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of California at Berkeley, 94720-7360, USA
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Wagner BA, Buettner GR, Oberley LW, Darby CJ, Burns CP. Myeloperoxidase is involved in H2O2-induced apoptosis of HL-60 human leukemia cells. J Biol Chem 2000; 275:22461-9. [PMID: 10801811 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m001434200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined the mechanism of H(2)O(2)-induced cytotoxicity and its relationship to oxidation in human leukemia cells. The HL-60 promyelocytic leukemia cell line was sensitive to H(2)O(2), and at concentrations up to about 20-25 micrometer, the killing was mediated by apoptosis. There was limited evidence of lipid peroxidation, suggesting that the effects of H(2)O(2) do not involve hydroxyl radical. When HL-60 cells were exposed to H(2)O(2) in the presence of the spin trap alpha-(4-pyridyl-1-oxide)-N-tert-butylnitrone (POBN), we detected a 12-line electron paramagnetic resonance spectrum assigned to the POBN/POBN(.) N-centered spin adduct previously described in peroxidase-containing cell-free systems. Generation of this radical by HL-60 cells had the same H(2)O(2) concentration dependence as initiation of apoptosis. In contrast, studies with the K562 human erythroleukemia cell line, which is often used for comparison with the HL-60, and with high passaged HL-60 cells (spent HL-60) studied under the same conditions failed to generate POBN(.). Cellular levels of antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase did not explain the differences between these cell lines. Interestingly, the K562 and spent HL-60 cells, which did not generate the radical, also failed to undergo H(2)O(2)-induced apoptosis. Based on this we reasoned that the difference in H(2)O(2)-induced apoptosis might be due to the enzyme myeloperoxidase. Only the apoptosis-manifesting HL-60 cells contained appreciable immunoreactive protein or enzymatic activity of this cellular enzyme. When HL-60 cells were incubated with methimazole or 4-aminobenzoic acid hydrazide, which are inhibitors of myeloperoxidase, they no longer underwent H(2)O(2)-induced apoptosis. Hypochlorous acid stimulated apoptosis in both HL-60 and spent HL-60 cells, indicating that another oxidant generated by myeloperoxidase induces apoptosis and that it may be the direct mediator of H(2)O(2)-induced apoptosis. Taken together these observations indicate that H(2)O(2)-induced apoptosis in the HL-60 human leukemia cell is mediated by myeloperoxidase and is linked to a non-Fenton oxidative event marked by POBN(.).
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Affiliation(s)
- B A Wagner
- Departments of Medicine and Radiology (Free Radical and Radiation Biology Graduate Program), The University of Iowa College of Medicine and The University of Iowa Cancer Center, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
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Ferreira AC, Rosenthal D, Carvalho DP. Thyroid peroxidase inhibition by Kalanchoe brasiliensis aqueous extract. Food Chem Toxicol 2000; 38:417-21. [PMID: 10762727 DOI: 10.1016/s0278-6915(00)00017-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Flavonoids are known inhibitors of thyroid peroxidase (TPO) and some are components of Kalanchoe brasiliensis, a plant used in popular medicine to treat tissue injuries, enlarged ganglia and peptic ulcer. As K. brasiliensis extract is currently used, the present study was designed to evaluate the effects of K. brasiliensis aqueous extract on TPO activity. We show here that TPO iodide-oxidation activity was significantly inhibited by K. brasiliensis aqueous extract and that TPO inhibition seems to be competitive, since the enzyme V(max) was unchanged and K(m) for iodide was significantly increased in the presence of the plant extract. Furthermore, TPO inhibitory activity produced by K. brasiliensis extract was unchanged after boiling or by incubation with hepatic enzymes (activated S9 fraction), suggesting that at least the antithyroid component of this plant infusion could probably reach systemic circulation. We also report that K. brasiliensis aqueous extract is able to scavenge H(2)O(2), in vitro. As H(2)O(2) is an essential TPO cofactor, it is possible that the H(2)O(2) trapping effect of K. brasiliensis may be responsible, at least in part, for the inhibition of the iodide-oxidation reaction catalysed by this enzyme. Thus, K. brasiliensis aqueous extract has antithyroid effects in vitro, suggesting that its chronic consumption could contribute to the development of goitre and hypothyroidism, mainly in areas of low iodine intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- A C Ferreira
- Laboratório de Fisiologia Endócrina, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Rettie AE, Lang DH. Can caffeine metabolism be used as an in-vivo probe for human flavin-containing monooxygenase activity? PHARMACOGENETICS 2000; 10:275-7. [PMID: 10803685 DOI: 10.1097/00008571-200004000-00010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Carvalho DP, Ferreira AC, Coelho SM, Moraes JM, Camacho MA, Rosenthal D. Thyroid peroxidase activity is inhibited by amino acids. Braz J Med Biol Res 2000; 33:355-61. [PMID: 10719389 DOI: 10.1590/s0100-879x2000000300015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Normal in vitro thyroid peroxidase (TPO) iodide oxidation activity was completely inhibited by a hydrolyzed TPO preparation (0.15 mg/ml) or hydrolyzed bovine serum albumin (BSA, 0.2 mg/ml). A pancreatic hydrolysate of casein (trypticase peptone, 0.1 mg/ml) and some amino acids (cysteine, tryptophan and methionine, 50 microM each) also inhibited the TPO iodide oxidation reaction completely, whereas casamino acids (0.1 mg/ml), and tyrosine, phenylalanine and histidine (50 microM each) inhibited the TPO reaction by 54% or less. A pancreatic digest of gelatin (0.1 mg/ml) or any other amino acid (50 microM) tested did not significantly decrease TPO activity. The amino acids that impair iodide oxidation also inhibit the TPO albumin iodination activity. The inhibitory amino acids contain side chains with either sulfur atoms (cysteine and methionine) or aromatic rings (tyrosine, tryptophan, histidine and phenylalanine). Among the amino acids tested, only cysteine affected the TPO guaiacol oxidation reaction, producing a transient inhibition at 25 or 50 microM. The iodide oxidation inhibitory activity of cysteine, methionine and tryptophan was reversed by increasing iodide concentrations from 12 to 18 mM, while no such effect was observed when the cofactor (H2O2) concentration was increased. The inhibitory substances might interfere with the enzyme activity by competing with its normal substrates for their binding sites, binding to the free substrates or reducing their oxidized form.
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Affiliation(s)
- D P Carvalho
- Laboratório de Fisiologia Endócrina, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
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Czarnecki K, Proniewicz LM, Fujii H, Ji D, Czernuszewicz RS, Kincaid JR. Insensitivity of Vanadyl−Oxygen Bond Strengths to Radical Type (2A1u vs 2A2u) in Vanadyl Porphyrin Cation Radicals. Inorg Chem 1999. [DOI: 10.1021/ic981369g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kazimierz Czarnecki
- Chemistry Department; Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233, Chemical Physics Division, Department of Chemistry, and Regional Laboratory of Physicochemical Analysis and Structural Research, Jagiellonian University, 3 Ingardena Street, 30-060 Krakow, Poland, Institute for Molecular Science, Okazaki National Research Institutes, Okazaki 444, Japan, and Chemistry Department, University of Houston, Houston, Texas 77004
| | - Leonard M. Proniewicz
- Chemistry Department; Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233, Chemical Physics Division, Department of Chemistry, and Regional Laboratory of Physicochemical Analysis and Structural Research, Jagiellonian University, 3 Ingardena Street, 30-060 Krakow, Poland, Institute for Molecular Science, Okazaki National Research Institutes, Okazaki 444, Japan, and Chemistry Department, University of Houston, Houston, Texas 77004
| | - Hiroshi Fujii
- Chemistry Department; Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233, Chemical Physics Division, Department of Chemistry, and Regional Laboratory of Physicochemical Analysis and Structural Research, Jagiellonian University, 3 Ingardena Street, 30-060 Krakow, Poland, Institute for Molecular Science, Okazaki National Research Institutes, Okazaki 444, Japan, and Chemistry Department, University of Houston, Houston, Texas 77004
| | - David Ji
- Chemistry Department; Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233, Chemical Physics Division, Department of Chemistry, and Regional Laboratory of Physicochemical Analysis and Structural Research, Jagiellonian University, 3 Ingardena Street, 30-060 Krakow, Poland, Institute for Molecular Science, Okazaki National Research Institutes, Okazaki 444, Japan, and Chemistry Department, University of Houston, Houston, Texas 77004
| | - Roman S. Czernuszewicz
- Chemistry Department; Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233, Chemical Physics Division, Department of Chemistry, and Regional Laboratory of Physicochemical Analysis and Structural Research, Jagiellonian University, 3 Ingardena Street, 30-060 Krakow, Poland, Institute for Molecular Science, Okazaki National Research Institutes, Okazaki 444, Japan, and Chemistry Department, University of Houston, Houston, Texas 77004
| | - James R. Kincaid
- Chemistry Department; Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53233, Chemical Physics Division, Department of Chemistry, and Regional Laboratory of Physicochemical Analysis and Structural Research, Jagiellonian University, 3 Ingardena Street, 30-060 Krakow, Poland, Institute for Molecular Science, Okazaki National Research Institutes, Okazaki 444, Japan, and Chemistry Department, University of Houston, Houston, Texas 77004
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