Characterisation, cytotoxicity and apoptosis studies of methotrexate-loaded PLGA and PLGA-PEG nanoparticles

Hemocompatible and biocompatible hybrid nanocarriers for enhanced oral bioavailability of paclitaxel: in vivo evaluation

Oral administration of BCS class IV anticancer agents has always remained challenging and frequently results in poor oral bioavailability. The goal of the current study was to develop hybrid nanoparticles (HNPs) employing cholesterol and poloxamer-407 to boost paclitaxel's (PTX) oral bioavailability. A series of HNPs with different cholesterol and poloxamer-407 ratios were developed utilizing a single-step nanoprecipitation technique. The PTX loaded HNPs were characterized systematically via particle size, zeta potential, polydispersity index, surface morphology, in vitro drug release, FTIR, DSC, XRD, acute oral toxicity analysis, hemolysis evaluation, accelerated stability studies, and in vivo pharmacokinetic analysis. The HNPs were found within the range of 106.6±55.60 - 244.5±88.24 nm diameter with the polydispersity index ranging from 0.20±0.03 - 0.51±0.11. SEM confirmed circular, nonporous, and smooth surfaces of HNPs. PTX loaded HNPs exhibited controlled release profile. The compatibility between the components of formulation, thermal stability, and amorphous nature of HNPs were confirmed by FTIR, DSC, and XRD, respectively. Acute oral toxicity analysis revealed that developed system have no deleterious effects on the animals' cellular structures. HNPs demonstrated notable cytotoxic effects and were hemocompatible at relatively higher concentrations. In vivo pharmacokinetic profile (AUC0-∞, AUMC0-∞, t1/2, and MRT0-∞) of the PTX loaded HNPs was improved as compared to pure PTX. It is concluded from our findings that the developed HNPs are hemocompatible, biocompatible and have significantly enhanced the oral bioavailability of PTX.

Fabrication of Poly Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid Microneedles for Sustained Delivery of Lipophilic Peptide-Carfilzomib

Transdermal drug delivery (TDD) is an attractive route of administration, providing several advantages, especially over oral and parenteral routes. However, TDD is significantly restricted due to the barrier imposed by the uppermost layer of the skin, the stratum corneum (SC). Microneedles is a physical enhancement technique that efficiently pierces the SC and facilitates the delivery of both lipophilic and hydrophilic molecules. Dissolving microneedles is a commonly used type that is fabricated utilizing various biodegradable and biocompatible polymers, such as polylactic acid, polyglycolic acid, or poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA). Such polymers also promote the prolonged release of the drug due to the slow degradation of the polymer matrix following its insertion. We selected carfilzomib, a small therapeutic peptide (MW: 719.924 g/mol, log P 4.19), as a model drug to fabricate a microneedle-based sustained delivery system. This study is a proof-of-concept investigation in which we fabricated PLGA microneedles using four types of PLGA (50-2A, 50-5A, 75-5A, and 50-7P) to evaluate the feasibility of long-acting transdermal delivery of carfilzomib. Micromolding technique was used to fabricate the PLGA microneedles and characterization tests, including Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, insertion capability using the skin simulant Parafilm model, histological evaluation, scanning electron microscopy, and confocal microscopy were conducted. In vitro release and permeation testing were conducted in vertical Franz diffusion cells. N-methyl pyrrolidone was utilized as the organic solvent and microneedles were solidified in controlled conditions, which led to good mechanical strength. Both in vitro release and permeation testing showed sustained profiles of carfilzomib over 7 days. The release and permeation were significantly influenced by the molecular weight of PLGA and the lipophilic properties of carfilzomib.

Machine learning assisted exploration of the influential parameters on the PLGA nanoparticles

Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)-based nanoparticles (NPs) are widely investigated as drug delivery systems. However, despite the numerous reviews and research papers discussing various physicochemical and technical properties that affect NP size and drug loading characteristics, predicting the influential features remains difficult. In the present study, we employed four different machine learning (ML) techniques to create ML models using effective parameters related to NP size, encapsulation efficiency (E.E.%), and drug loading (D.L.%). These parameters were extracted from the different literature. Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator was used to investigate the input parameters and identify the most influential features (descriptors). Initially, ML models were trained and validated using tenfold validation methods, and subsequently, next their performances were evaluated and compared in terms of absolute error, mean absolute, error and R-square. After comparing the performance of different ML models, we decided to use support vector regression for predicting the size and E.E.% and random forest for predicting the D.L.% of PLGA-based NPs. Furthermore, we investigated the interactions between these target variables using ML methods and found that size and E.E.% are interrelated, while D.L.% shows no significant relationship with the other targets. Among these variables, E.E.% was identified as the most influential parameter affecting the NPs' size. Additionally, we found that certain physicochemical properties of PLGA, including molecular weight (Mw) and the lactide-to-glycolide (LA/GA) ratio, are the most determining features for E.E.% and D.L.% of the final NPs, respectively.

Advanced nano-therapeutic delivery of metformin: potential anti-cancer effect against human colon cancer cells through inhibition of GPR75 expression

The high incidence rate coupled with significant mortality makes colorectal cancer one of the most prevalent and devastating cancers worldwide. Research is currently underway to explore new forms of treatment that could potentially maximize treatment outcomes while minimizing the side effects associated with conventional chemotherapy. Metformin, a natural biguanide drug, has anti-cancer properties that can inhibit the growth and proliferation of cancer cells. However, due to its short half-life and low bioavailability, the efficacy of Metf as an anti-cancer agent is limited. The purpose of this research is to assess the potency of PEGylated niosomes as a nano-delivery system for Metf, with the aim of increasing its anti-cancer effects on CaCo2 colorectal cancer cells through the effect on the expression of genes, including GPR75, hTERT, Bax, Bcl2, and Cyclin D1. Metf-loaded niosomal NPs (N-Metf) were synthesized using the thin-film hydration method and then characterized using SEM, FTIR, AFM, and DLS techniques. The release pattern of the drug from the nanoparticles (NPS) was determined using the dialysis membrane method. Furthermore, the cytotoxic effect of the metformin-loaded PEGylated niosome on the CaCo2 cell line was evaluated by the MTT test. Additionally, an apoptosis assay was conducted to assess the effect of free Metf and Metf-loaded NPS on the programmed death of the CaCo2 cells, and the impact on the cell cycle was studied through a cell cycle test. Finally, the expression levels of hTERT, Cyclin D1, BCL2, GPR75, and BAX genes were assessed in the presence of free Metf and Metf-loaded NPs by RT-PCR. Characterization experiments showed successful loading of metformin into PEGylated niosomes. The results of cytotoxicity evaluation showed that Metf-NPs had more cytotoxicity than free Metf in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, nuclear fragmentation and the percentage of apoptotic cells induced by Metf-NPs were significantly higher than those induced by free Metf. Additionally, Metf-NPs were found to induce more cell cycle arrest at the sub-G1 checkpoint than free Metf did. Compared with Metf-treated cells, the mRNA expression levels of GPR75, Cyclin D1, and hTERT were significantly changed in cells treated with Metf-NPs. Ultimately, it is hypothesized the nano-encapsulation of Metf into PEGylated niosomal NPs could be a worthwhile drug delivery system to enhance its effectiveness in treating colorectal cancer cells.

Melatonin loaded hybrid nanomedicine: DoE approach, optimization and in vitro study on diabetic retinopathy model

Melatonin (MEL) is a pleiotropic neurohormone of increasing interest as a neuroprotective agent in ocular diseases. Improving the mucoadhesiveness is a proposed strategy to increase the bioavailability of topical formulations. Herein, the design and optimization of MEL-loaded lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (mel-LPHNs) using Design of Experiment (DoE) was performed. LPHNs consisted of PLGA-PEG polymer nanoparticles coated with a cationic lipid-shell. The optimized nanomedicine showed suitable size for ophthalmic administration (189.4 nm; PDI 0.260) with a positive surface charge (+39.8 mV), high encapsulation efficiency (79.8 %), suitable pH and osmolarity values, good mucoadhesive properties and a controlled release profile. Differential Scanning Calorimetry and Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy confirmed the encapsulation of melatonin in the systems and the interaction between lipids and polymer matrix. Biological evaluation in an in vitro model of diabetic retinopathy demonstrated enhanced neuroprotective and antioxidant activities of mel-LPHNs, compared to melatonin aqueous solution at the same concentration (0.1 and 1 μM). A modified Draize test was performed to assess the ocular tolerability of the formulation showing no signs of irritation. To the best our knowledge, this study reported for the first time the development of mel-LPHNs, a novel and safe hybrid platform suitable for the topical management of retinal diseases.

Journey to the Market: The Evolution of Biodegradable Drug Delivery Systems

Biodegradable polymers have been used as carriers in drug delivery systems for more than four decades. Early work used crude natural materials for particle fabrication, whereas more recent work has utilized synthetic polymers. Applications include the macroscale, the microscale, and the nanoscale. Since pioneering work in the 1960’s, an array of products that use biodegradable polymers to encapsulate the desired drug payload have been approved for human use by international regulatory agencies. The commercial success of these products has led to further research in the field aimed at bringing forward new formulation types for improved delivery of various small molecule and biologic drugs. Here, we review recent advances in the development of these materials and we provide insight on their drug delivery application. We also address payload encapsulation and drug release mechanisms from biodegradable formulations and their application in approved therapeutic products.

Anticancer effects against colorectal cancer models of chloro(triethylphosphine)gold(I) encapsulated in PLGA-PEG nanoparticles

Chloro(triethylphosphine)gold(I), (Et₃PAuCl hereafter), is an Auranofin (AF)-related compound showing very similar biological and pharmacological properties. Like AF, Et₃PAuCl exhibits potent antiproliferative properties in vitro toward a variety of cancer cell lines and is a promising anticancer drug candidate. We wondered whether Et₃PAuCl encapsulation might lead to an improved pharmacological profile also considering the likely reduction of unwanted side-reactions that are responsible for adverse effects and for drug inactivation. Et₃PAuCl was encapsulated in biocompatible PLGA–PEG nanoparticles (NPs) and the new formulation evaluated in colorectal HCT-116 cancer cells in comparison to the free gold complex. Notably, encapsulated Et₃PAuCl (nano-Et₃PAuCl hereafter) mostly retains the cellular properties of the free gold complex and elicits even greater cytotoxic effects in colorectal cancer (CRC) cells, mediated by apoptosis and autophagy. Moreover, a remarkable inhibition of two crucial signaling pathways, i.e. ERK and AKT, by nano-Et₃PAuCl, was clearly documented. The implications of these findings are discussed.

A Rationally Designed Micellar Nanocarrier for the Delivery of Hydrophilic Methotrexate in Psoriasis Treatment

Methotrexate (MTX) is broadly applied in the clinic for the treatments of cancers and autoimmune diseases. Targeted delivery of MTX is attractive to improve its efficacy and reduce off-target toxicity. However, MTX encapsulation in nanoparticle is challenging due to its high water solubility. We rationally designed a well-defined telodendrimer (TD) nanocarrier based on MTX structure to sequester it in nanoparticles. Riboflavin (Rf) and positive charges groups were precisely conjugated on TD to form multivalent hydrogen bonds, π-π stacking and electrostatic interactions with MTX. A reverse micelle approach was developed to preset MTX and TD interactions in the core of micelles, which ensures the effective MTX loading upon dispersion into aqueous solution. As results, MTX loading capacity reaches over 20% (w/w) in the optimized nanocarrier with the particle size of 20-30 nm. The nanoformulations sustain the release of MTX in a controlled manner and exhibit excellent hemocompatibility. The in vitro cellular uptake of MTX was significantly improved by the nanoformulations. The potency of MTX nanoformulations is comparable to the free MTX in cytotoxicity. A psoriasis-like skin inflammation model was induced in mouse by imiquimod (IMQ) stimulation. MTX nanoformulations improved the psoriasis targeting and exhibited a superior long-lasting efficacy in reducing skin inflammation compared with the free MTX in psoriasis treatment.

Paclitaxel/methotrexate co-loaded PLGA nanoparticles in glioblastoma treatment: Formulation development and in vitro antitumor activity evaluation

AIM

The aim of this study was to improve the therapeutic index of chemotherapeutic drugs on glioblastoma cells through an improved co-drug delivery system.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Methotrexate (MTX) and paclitaxel (PTX) were co-loaded into poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles (PLGA NPs) coated with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and Poloxamer188 (P188).

KEY FINDINGS

The mean size of the NPs was about 212 nm, with a zeta potential of about -15.7 mV. Encapsulation efficiency (EE%) and drug loading (DL%) were determined to be 72% and 4% for MTX and 85% and 4.9% for PTX, respectively. The prepared NPs were characterized by differential thermal analysis (DTA) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Moreover, an in vitro sustained release profile was observed for both drug loaded PLGA NPs. Glioblastoma cellular uptake of the NPs was confirmed by fluorescence microscopy and cell survival rate was investigated through the 3-(4,5-dimethyl thiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) method after 48 h of incubation showing IC₅₀ values of 24.5 μg·mL^-1 for PTX and 9.5 μg·mL^-1 for MTX for the MTX/PTX co-loaded PLGA nanoparticles coated with PVA/P188 (Co-2 NPs). Apoptosis and necrosis were also studied via flow cytometry, the lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assay and the amount of anti-apoptotic protein (Bcl-2) expression. Blood compatibility of the co-delivery of PTX and MTX loaded PLGA NPs was investigated using a hemolysis method as well.

SIGNIFICANCE

The co-delivery of PTX and MTX loaded PLGA NPs is promising for the treatment of glioblastoma compared to their respective free drug formulations and, thus, should be further investigated.

A comparison of models for the analysis of the kinetics of drug release from PLGA-based nanoparticles

Purpose

Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) has received much academic attention for developing nanotherapeutics and FDA has approved it for several applications. An important parameter that dictates the bioavailability and hence the biological effect of the drug is drug release from its delivering system. This study offers a comparative mathematical analysis of drug release from Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid)–based nanoparticles to suggest a general model explaining multi-mechanistic release they provide.

Methods

Eight release models, zero order, first order, Higuchi, Hixson-Crowell, the square root of mass, the three-second root of mass, Weibull and Korsmeyer-Peppas, as well as the second degree polynomial equation were applied to 60 data sets. The models analysed regarding several types of errors, regression parameters and average Akaike information criterion.

Results and discussion

Most of the data sets present the highest R², the lowest overall error and AIC for the Weibull model. Weibull model with the mean AIC = -36.37 and mean OE = 7.24 and the highest NE less than 5, 10, 15 and 20 % in most of the cases best fits the release data from various PLGA-based drug delivery systems that are studied. Weibull model seems to show enough flexibility to describe various release patterns PLGA provides.

Magnesium oil enriched transdermal nanogel of methotrexate for improved arthritic joint mobility, repair, and reduced inflammation

Aim: Methotrexate (Mtx) is prescribed to reduce pain and inflammation in arthritis patients; however, improved repair and mobility of joints still are the major concerns. Magnesium oil (MO) improves joint mobility and repair; therefore, MO-assisted transdermal delivery of Mtx was aimed.Methods: MO integrated Mtx nanoemulsion (Mtx-MONE) was prepared with uniform size (175 ± 35.4 nm), pH (6.15 ± 0.3) near to skin pH, and high entrapment efficiency (65 ± 8.6%). Mtx-MONE was transformed to nanogel (Mtx-MONEG) with semisolid consistency (43,408 ± 77.72 cP) and good spreadability (3.63 ± 0.033 mJ).Results: Mtx-MONEG showed significant reduction in oedema, arthritic scores, level of inflammatory cytokines, and improved walking as compared to diseased control. MO offered additional improvements in joints, mobility, and repair.Conclusion: Transdermal delivery of Mtx has been successfully achieved by Mtx-MONEG. Tremendous recovery from inflammation, improved joints mobility and repair, and reduced pain strongly support the use of MO as an adjutant of Mtx for improved transdermal application.

Preparation and In Vitro/In Vivo Characterization of Polymeric Nanoparticles Containing Methotrexate to Improve Lymphatic Delivery

Methotrexate (MTX) is a folic acid antagonist used as an effective drug to treat various kinds of cancers. However, MTX has limited use in cancer chemotherapy due to its adverse effects such as poor bioavailability, low specificity, drug resistance, and dose-dependent side effects. To improve lymphatic delivery and reduce toxicity of MTX, MTX-loaded nanoparticles (NPs) were prepared in the present study. NPs were prepared with double emulsion solvent evaporation method using poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA). NPs were assessed for size, encapsulation efficiency, morphology, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, and thermal characterization. In vitro release profiles and cytotoxicity of these NPs were also evaluated. Prepared NPs and free MTX were administered orally or intravenously (5 mg/kg as MTX) to rats to evaluate their pharmacokinetic characteristics and lymphatic delivery effects. Mean particle size and encapsulation efficiency of NPs were 163.7 ± 10.25 nm and 93.3 ± 0.5%, respectively. Prepared NPs showed a sustained release profile of MTX in vitro and may be effective to cancer cells. Area under the blood concentration-time curve, total clearance, half-life, and lymphatic targeting efficiency were significantly different (p < 0.05) between prepared NPs and free MTX. These results demonstrate that MTX-loaded PLGA NPs are good candidates for targeted delivery of MTX to the lymphatic system.

Modeling the Accumulation of Degradable Polymer Drug Carriers in the Brain

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) limits the access of drugs to the brain. Intensive research is being conducted on the development of nanoparticulate drug carriers that mediate transfer across the BBB. A question that has been neglected so far is the potential accumulation of the carrier in the brain upon long-term exposure. Here, we address this question by implementing a kinetic model to relate drug loading, required concentration of drug in the brain, and drug clearance to the degradation half-life of the carrier. As a test case with clinical relevance we chose poly-lactic-co-glycolic-acid (PLGA) as a carrier material and a chemotherapeutic for which the required parameters could be recovered from the literature. For methotrexate with a drug load of 8.5 %, a required concentration of free drug of 1 μm, a release from PLGA of 6 hours, a drug clearance from the brain of 3 hours and a half-life of polymer degradation of 28 days, a steady-state accumulation of 1.3 g polymer would be reached in the brain (1.5 L) after seven months. While this number is surprisingly small, further physiological research is warranted to assess to which degree this will be in a tolerable range.

Development of Albumin Coupled, Cholesterol Stabilized, Lipid Nanoemulsion of Methotrexate, and TNF-α Inhibitor for Improved In Vivo Efficacy Against Rheumatoid Arthritis

Methotrexate (MTX; an anti-folate) and etanercept (ET; a TNF-α inhibitor) are used against arthritis; however, limitations like short biological half-life, low cutaneous absorption, and acidic instability limit their clinical relevance. Therefore, the aim of the investigation was to develop albumin coupled lipid nanoemulsion of MTX and ET for improved efficacy by virtue of their controlled release and specificity at the arthritic site. This emulsion was prepared by high-speed homogenization and stabilized using cholesterol. Lipid nanoemulsion of MTX and ET (MTX+ET-LNE) was coupled with albumin (MTX+ET-ALNE). MTX+ET-ALNE was characterized on the basis of particle size (410 ± 25.4 nm), PDI (0.160), and zeta potential (+38.6 ± 5.6 mV) and evaluated for pH (6.15), drug content (97.7 ± 2.17%), entrapment efficiency (76 ± 4.6%), in vitro release, and in vitro cytotoxicity. About 82.6 ± 9.60% release of MTX+ET was observed in 24 h from the developed MTX+ET-ALNE which may help maintain therapeutic level of drugs in blood at least for one day. No toxicity was observed when Raw 264.7 cells were treated with MTX+ET-ALNE, and no causalities of mice were observed at experimental in vivo dose (10 mg/kg BW) of MTX+ET in MTX+ET-ALNE-treated group. MTX+ET-ALNE treatment has alleviated arthritic scores and inflammatory cytokines level in a very significant manner when compared with MTX+ET-LNE and MTX+ET solutions. MTX+ET-ALNE-treated group restored histological alterations (cartilage/bone erosion, inflammatory cell infiltration, synovial hyperplasia, and narrower joint space) as observed in diseased treated groups. In conclusion, MTX+ET-ALNE can be opted as efficacious and clinically pertinent option to the current medication systems of arthritis.

Development and optimization of methotrexate-loaded lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles for controlled drug delivery applications

Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNPs) are emerging platforms for drug delivery applications. In the present study, methotrexate loaded LPHNPs consisted of PLGA and Lipoid S100 were fabricated by employing a single-step modified nanoprecipitation method combined with self-assembly. A three factor, three level Box Behnken design using Design-Expert^® software was employed to access the influence of three independent variables on the particle size, drug entrapment and percent drug release. The optimized formulation was selected through numeric optimization approach. The results were supported with the ANOVA analysis, regression equations and response surface plots. Transmission electron microscope images indicated the nanosized and spherical shape of the LPHNPs with fair size distribution. The nanoparticles ranged from 176 to 308nm, which increased with increased polymer concentration. The increase in polymer and lipid concentration also increased the drug entrapment efficiency. The in vitro drug release was in range 70.34-91.95% and the release mechanism follow the Higuchi model (R²=0.9888) and Fickian diffusion (n<0.5). The in vitro cytotoxicity assay and confocal microscopy of the optimized formulation demonstrate the good safety and better internalization of the LPHNPs. The cell antiproliferation showed the spatial and controlled action of the nanoformulation as compared to the plain drug solution. The results suggest that LPHNPs can be a promising delivery system envisioned to safe, stable and potentially controlled delivery of methotrexate to the cancer cells to achieve better therapeutic outcomes.

Ascorbic acid tethered polymeric nanoparticles enable efficient brain delivery of galantamine: An in vitro-in vivo study

The aim of this work was to enhance the transportation of the galantamine to the brain via ascorbic acid grafted PLGA-b-PEG nanoparticles (NPs) using SVCT2 transporters of choroid plexus. PLGA-b-PEG copolymer was synthesized and characterized by ¹H NMR, gel permeation chromatography, and differential scanning calorimetry. PLGA-b-PEG-NH₂ and PLGA-b-mPEG NPs were prepared by nanoprecipitation method. PLGA-b-PEG NPs with desirable size, polydispersity, and drug loading were used for the conjugation with ascorbic acid (PLGA-b-PEG-Asc) to facilitate SVCT2 mediated transportation of the same into the brain. The surface functionalization of NPs with ascorbic acid significantly increased cellular uptake of NPs in SVCT2 expressing NIH/3T3 cells as compared to plain PLGA and PLGA-b-mPEG NPs. In vivo pharmacodynamic efficacy was evaluated using Morris Water Maze Test, Radial Arm Maze Test and AChE activity in scopolamine induced amnetic rats. In vivo pharmacodynamic studies demonstrated significantly higher therapeutic and sustained action by drug loaded PLGA-b-PEG-Asc NPs than free drugs and drug loaded plain PLGA as well as PLGA-b-mPEG NPs. Additionally, PLGA-b-PEG-Asc NPs resulted in significantly higher biodistribution of the drug to the brain than other formulations. Hence, the results suggested that targeting of bioactives to the brain by ascorbic acid grafted PLGA-b-PEG NPs is a promising approach.

Monitoring structural features, biocompatibility and biological efficacy of gamma-irradiated methotrexate-loaded spray-dried microparticles

In this study, biodegradable and biocompatible gamma irradiated poly-(dl-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) spray-dried microparticles were prepared aiming to improve the efficacy of methotrexate (MTX). The experimental design included three formulations of microparticles containing distinct drug amount (9%, 18%, and 27% w/w) and three distinct gamma irradiation dose (15kGy, 25kGy, and 30kGy). The physicochemical and drug release properties of the microparticles supported their biocompatibility and biological efficacy studies in different cell lines. The irradiation induced slight changes in the spherical shape of the microparticles and the formation of free radicals was dependent on the drug loading. However, the amorphous character, particle size, drug loading, and drug release rate of the microparticles were preserved. The drug release data from all microparticles formulation were evaluated by using four drug kinetic models and by comparison of their similarity factor (f₂). The gamma irradiation did not induce changes in the biocompatibility of PLGA microparticles and in the biological activity of the MTX-loaded microparticles. Finally, the spray-dried MTX-loaded PLGA microparticles enhanced the efficacy of the drug in the human cervical cancer cells (SiHa cell line). This study demonstrated the feasibility of the gamma irradiated spray dried PLGA microparticles for prolonged release of MTX, supporting a promising antitumor-drug delivery system for parenteral (subcutaneous) or pulmonary use.

Building the design, translation and development principles of polymeric nanomedicines using the case of clinically advanced poly(lactide(glycolide))-poly(ethylene glycol) nanotechnology as a model: An industrial viewpoint

The design of the first polymeric nanoparticles could be traced back to the 1970s, and has thereafter received considerable attention, as evidenced by the significant increase of the number of articles and patents in this area. This review article is an attempt to take advantage of the existing literature on the clinically tested and commercialized biodegradable PLA(G)A-PEG nanotechnology as a model to propose quality building and outline translation and development principles for polymeric nano-medicines. We built such an approach from various building blocks including material design, nano-assembly - i.e. physicochemistry of drug/nano-object association in the pharmaceutical process, and release in relevant biological environment - characterization and identification of the quality attributes related to the biopharmaceutical properties. More specifically, as envisaged in a translational approach, the reported data on PLA(G)A-PEG nanotechnology have been structured into packages to evidence the links between the structure, physicochemical properties, and the in vitro and in vivo performances of the nanoparticles. The integration of these bodies of knowledge to build the CMC (Chemistry Manufacturing and Controls) quality management strategy and finally support the translation to proof of concept in human, and anticipation of the industrialization takes into account the specific requirements and biopharmaceutical features attached to the administration route. From this approach, some gaps are identified for the industrial development of such nanotechnology-based products, and the expected improvements are discussed. The viewpoint provided in this article is expected to shed light on design, translation and pharmaceutical development to realize their full potential for future clinical applications.

The ligand (s) anchored lipobrid nanoconstruct mediated delivery of methotrexate: an effective approach in breast cancer therapeutics

The present study was designed to engineer surface-anchored and methotrexate loaded lipobrid nano-constructs for targeting breast cancer. Ligands (fucose, galactose and mannose) anchored lipobrid nano-constructs were used to compare and assess delivery efficiency in breast cancer cell lines as well as in DMBA induced breast cancer animal model. The developed and characterized formulations were used to comparatively assess cellular uptake, cell-viability, apoptosis, lysosomal membrane permeability, bioavailability, bio-distribution, changes in tumor volume and animal survival. Our results show greater cellular uptake, cytotoxicity at low IC50, apoptosis with altered lysosomal membrane permeability and greater rate of degradation of lysosomal membrane. We saw better bioavailability and tumor targeting efficiency with minimum secondary organ drug distribution. The significant reduction was seen in tumor burden with ligand anchored lipobrids in comparison to plain and MTX-lipobrid formulations. In conclusion, fucose anchored MTX-lipobrid formulation showed promising results, and warrants to explore the development of therapeutic interventions for breast cancer.

Nanostructured lipid carriers: versatile oral delivery vehicle

Oral delivery is the most accepted and economical route for drug administration and leads to substantial reduction in dosing frequency. However, this route still remains a challenge for the pharmaceutical industry due to poorly soluble and permeable drugs leading to poor oral bioavailability. Incorporating bioactives into nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) has helped in boosting their therapeutic functionality and prolonged release from these carrier systems thus providing improved pharmacokinetic parameters. The present review provides an overview of noteworthy studies reporting impending benefits of NLCs in oral delivery and highlights recent advancements for developing engineered NLCs either by conjugating polymers over their surface or modifying their charge to overcome the mucosal barrier of GI tract for active transport across intestinal membrane.

Lay abstract: Oral administration of drugs is considered to be a convenient route; however, various drugs that are insoluble in water or unable to permeate across GI tract membrane cannot be delivered by this route. To deliver them effectively, various lipid carriers have been widely explored by researchers. Lipid carriers encapsulate drug inside them and deliver them effectively via the oral route. Also, encapsulation of drug protects them from degradation inside GI tract and safely delivers them to the site of action. This review summarizes application of lipid carriers, in other words, nanostructured lipid carriers, in eradicating these problems, with suitable examples.

Methotrexate Nanoparticles Prepared with Codendrimer from Polyamidoamine (PAMAM) and Oligoethylene Glycols (OEG) Dendrons: Antitumor Efficacy in Vitro and in Vivo

The novel methotrexate-loaded nanoparticles (MTX/PGD NPs) prepared with amphiphilic codendrimer PGD from polyamidoamine and oligothylene glycol dendrons were obtained via antisolvent precipitation method augmented by ultrasonication. Based on the excellent hydrophility of PGD, the drug-loaded nanoparticles could be investigated easily with the high drug-loading content (~85.2%, w/w). The MTX/PGD NPs possessed spherical morphology, nanoscaled particle size (approximately 182.4 nm), and narrow particle size distribution. Release of MTX from MTX/PGD NPs showed a sustained release manner and completed within 48 h. Hemolytic evaluation indicated MTX/PGD NPs presented good blood compatibility, and the cytotoxicity of nanoparticles against breast cancer cells in vitro, biodistribution in tumor tissue, and antitumor efficacy in vivo were enhanced significantly compared to MTX injection. According to the higher drug-loading content, enhanced antitumor efficacy, and appropriate particle size, MTX/PGD NPs as the drug delivery systems could have potential application for cancer chemotherapy in clinic.

Microfluidic Assembly of a Multifunctional Tailorable Composite System Designed for Site Specific Combined Oral Delivery of Peptide Drugs

Multifunctional tailorable composite systems, specifically designed for oral dual-delivery of a peptide (glucagon-like peptide-1) and an enzymatic inhibitor (dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4)), were assembled through the microfluidics technique. Both drugs were coloaded into these systems for a synergistic therapeutic effect. The systems were composed of chitosan and cell-penetrating peptide modified poly(lactide-co-glycolide) and porous silicon nanoparticles as nanomatrices, further encapsulated in an enteric hydroxypropylmethylcellulose acetylsuccinate polymer. The developed multifunctional systems were pH-sensitive, inherited by the enteric polymer, enabling the release of the nanoparticles only in the simulated intestinal conditions. Moreover, the encapsulation into this polymer prevented the degradation of the nanoparticles' modifications. These nanoparticles showed strong and higher interactions with the intestinal cells in comparison with the nonmodified ones. The presence of DPP4 inhibitor enhanced the peptide permeability across intestinal cell monolayers. Overall, this is a promising platform for simultaneously delivering two drugs from a single formulation. Through this approach peptides are expected to increase their bioavailability and efficiency in vivo both by their specific release at the intestinal level and also by the reduced enzymatic activity. The use of this platform, specifically in combination of the two antidiabetic drugs, has clinical potential for the therapy of type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Development and characterization of single step self-assembled lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles for effective delivery of methotrexate

The present study was designed to develop methotrexate (MTX) loaded lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNPs) for spatial and controlled delivery of this drug.