Severe traumatic brain lesions in Sweden. Part 2: Impact of aggressive neurosurgical intensive care

Neurointensive care of traumatic brain injury in the elderly-age-specific secondary insult levels and optimal physiological levels to target need to be defined

BACKGROUND

Elderly patients with traumatic brain injury increase. Current targets and secondary insult definitions during neurointensive care (NIC) are mostly based on younger patients. The aim was therefore to study the occurrence of predefined secondary insults and the impact on outcome in different ages with particular focus on elderly.

METHODS

Patients admitted to Uppsala 2008-2014 were included. Patient characteristics, NIC management, monitoring data, and outcome were analyzed. The percentage of monitoring time for ICP, CPP, MAP, and SBP above-/below-predefined thresholds was calculated.

RESULTS

Five hundred seventy patients were included, 151 elderly ≥ 65 years and 419 younger 16-64 years. Age ≥ 65 had significantly higher percentage of CPP > 100, MAP > 120, and SBP > 180 and age 16-64 had higher percentage of ICP ≥ 20, CPP ≤ 60, and MAP ≤ 80. Age ≥ 65 contributed independently to the different secondary insult patterens. When patients in all ages were analyzed, low percentage of CPP > 100 and SBP > 180, respectively, was significant predictors of favorable outcome and high percentage of ICP ≥ 20, CPP > 100, SBP ≤ 100, and SBP > 180, respectively, was predictors of death. Analysis of age interaction showed that patients ≥ 65 differed and had a higher odds for favorable outcome with large proportion of good monitoring time with SBP > 180.

CONCLUSIONS

Elderly ≥ 65 have different patterns of secondary insults/physiological variables, which is independently associated to age. The finding that SBP > 180 increased the odds of favorable outcome in the elderly but decreased the odds in younger patients may indicate that blood pressure should be treated differently depending on age.

Clinical outcome and prognostic factors in elderly traumatic brain injury patients receiving neurointensive care

Background

The probability of favorable outcome after traumatic brain injury (TBI) decreases with age. Elderly, ≥ 60 years, are an increasing part of our population. Recent studies have shown an increase of favorable outcome in elderly over time. However, the optimal patient selection and neurointensive care (NIC) treatments may differ in the elderly and the young. The aims of this study were to examine outcome in a larger group of elderly TBI patients receiving NIC and to identify demographic and treatment related prognostic factors.

Methods

Patients with TBI ≥ 60 years receiving NIC at our department between 2008 and 2014 were included. Demographics, co-morbidity, admission characteristics, and type of treatments were collected. Clinical outcome at around 6 months was assessed. Potential prognostic factors were included in univariate and multivariate regression analysis with favorable outcome as dependent variable.

Results

Two hundred twenty patients with mean age 70 years (median 69; range 60–87) were studied. Overall, favorable outcome was 46% (Extended Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOSE) 5–8), unfavorable outcome 27% (GOSE 2–4), and mortality 27% (GOSE 1). Significant independent negative prognostic variables were high age (p < 0.05), multiple injuries (p < 0.05), GCS M ≤ 3 on admission (p < 0.05), and mechanical ventilation (p < 0.001).

Conclusions

Overall, the elderly TBI patients > 60 years receiving modern NIC in this study had a fair chance of favorable outcome without large risks for severe deficits and vegetative state, also in patients over 75 years of age. High age, multiple injuries, GCS M ≤ 3 on admission, and mechanical ventilation proved to be independent negative prognostic factors. The results underline that a selected group of elderly with TBI should have access to NIC.

Updated periodic evaluation of standardized neurointensive care shows that it is possible to maintain a high level of favorable outcome even with increasing mean age

BACKGROUND

Periodic evaluation of neurointensive care (NIC) is important. There is a risk that quality of daily care declines and there may also be unrecognized changes in patient characteristics and management. The aim of this work was to investigate the characteristics and outcome for traumatic brain injury (TBI) patients in the period 2008-2009 in comparison with 1996-1997 and to some extent also with earlier periods.

METHODS

TBI patients 16-79 years old admitted from 2008 to 2009 were selected for the study. Glasgow Coma Scale Motor score at admission (GCS M), radiology, surgery, and outcome (Glasgow Outcome Extended Scale) were collected from Uppsala Traumatic Brain Injury Register.

RESULTS

The study included 148 patients (mean age, 45 years). Patients >60 years old increased from 16 % 1996-1997 to 30 % 2008-2009 (p < 0.01). The proportion of GCS M 4-6 were similar, 92 vs. 93 % (NS). In 1996-1997 patients, 73 % had diffuse injury (Marshall classification) compared to 77 % for the 2008-2009 period (NS). More patients underwent surgery during 2008-2009 (43 %) compared to 1996-1997 (32 %, p < 0.05). Good recovery increased and mortality decreased substantially from 1980-1981 to 1987-1988 and to 1996-1997, but then the results were unchanged in the 2008-2009 period, with 73 % favorable outcome and 11 % mortality. Mortality increased in GCS M 6-4, from 2.8 % in 1996-1997 to 10 % in 2008-2009 (p < 0.05); most of the patients that died had aggravating factors, e.g., high age, malignancy.

CONCLUSIONS

A large-proportion favorable outcome was maintained despite that patients >60 years with poorer prognosis doubled, indicating that the quality of NIC has increased or at least is unchanged. More surgery may have contributed to maintaining the large proportion of favorable outcome. For future improvements, more knowledge about TBI management in the elderly is required.

150 years of treating severe traumatic brain injury: a systematic review of progress in mortality

Considerable effort and resources have been devoted to preserving life in patients with severe closed traumatic brain injury (TBI). We sought to identify temporal trends in mortality rates of these patients from the late 1800s to the present. We searched the literature for articles on severe TBI, abstracting numbers of patients studied, numbers of deaths, and years of patient entry. Mortality rates were calculated for each study, and meta-regression was used to pool data and to test for significant temporal trends. We reviewed 207 case series comprising more than 140,000 cases of severe closed TBI admitted to hospital over a span of almost 150 years. Since the late 1800s mortality has fallen by almost 50%. However, the rate has varied considerably among the four epochs chosen. Between 1885 and 1930, mortality decreased at a rate of 3% per decade. From 1970 to 1990, mortality declined at a rate of 9% per decade. Both changes are significant. There was no observed improvement in mortality between 1930 and 1970, nor is progress evident since 1990. The authors discuss possible reasons for the apparently intermittent progress in TBI survival over time.

Metabolic effects of a late hypotensive insult combined with reduced intracranial compliance following traumatic brain injury in the rat

INTRODUCTION

Traumatic brain injury makes the brain vulnerable to secondary insults. Post-traumatic alterations in intracranial dynamics, such as reduced intracranial compliance (IC), are thought to further potentiate the effects of secondary insults. Reduced IC combined with intracranial volume insults leads to metabolic disturbances in a rat model. The aim of the present study was to discern whether a post-traumatic hypotensive insult in combination with reduced IC caused more pronounced secondary metabolic disturbances in the injured rat brain.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Rats were randomly assigned to four groups (n = 8/group): 1) trauma with hypotension; 2) trauma and reduced IC with hypotension; 3) sham injury with hypotension; and 4) sham injury and reduced IC with hypotension. A weight drop model of cortical contusion trauma was used. IC was reduced by gluing rubber film layers on the inside of bilateral bone flaps before replacement. Microdialysis probes were placed in the perimeter of the trauma zone. Hypotension was induced 2 h after trauma. Extracellular (EC) levels of lactate, pyruvate, hypoxanthine, and glycerol were analyzed.

RESULTS

The trauma resulted in a significant increase in EC dialysate levels of lactate, lactate/pyruvate ratio, hypoxanthine, and glycerol. A slight secondary increase in lactate was noted for all groups but group 2 during hypotension, otherwise no late effects were seen. There were no effects of reduced IC.

DISCUSSION

In conclusion, reduced IC did not increase the metabolic disturbances caused by the post-traumatic hypotensive insult. The results suggest that a mild to moderate hypotensive insult after initial post-traumatic resuscitation may be tolerated better than an early insult before resuscitation.

Relationship of aggressive monitoring and treatment to improved outcomes in severe traumatic brain injury

OBJECT

Despite being common practice for decades and being recommended by national guidelines, aggressive monitoring and treatment of patients with severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) have not been supported by convincing evidence.

METHODS

The authors reviewed trials and case series reported after 1970 in which patients were treated for severe closed TBI, and mortality rates and favorable outcomes at 6 months after injury were analyzed. The patient groups were divided into those with and without intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring and intensive therapy, and the authors performed a meta-analysis to assess the effects of treatment intensity on outcome.

RESULTS

Although the mortality rate fell during the years reviewed, it was consistently approximately 12% lower among patients in the intense treatment group (p < 0.001). Favorable outcomes did not change significantly over time, and were 6% higher among the aggressively treated patients (p = 0.0105).

CONCLUSIONS

Aggressive ICP monitoring and treatment of patients with severe TBI is associated with a statistically significant improvement in outcome. This improvement occurs independently of temporal effects.

A model for studies of intracranial volume pressure dynamics in traumatic brain injury

The present study was undertaken to establish an experimental trauma model where it was possible to alter intracranial pressure (ICP) dynamics without raising intracranial pressure to abnormal levels and monitor metabolic disturbances with microdialysis. Thirty rats were intubated and mechanically ventilated before and after trauma. ICP was measured in the left ventricle. A weight-drop technique (21 g from 35 cm) with a brain compression of 1.5 mm was used to produce the injury. Intracranial compensatory volume was decreased 20 or 60 microL by placement of rubber film between the dura mater and bone. A bolus injection technique was used for the pressure volume response. ICP remained within normal limits for 2 h after trauma irrespective of the reduction in compensatory intracranial volume. Pressure-volume index decreased from 0.0825 +/- 0.009 to 0.0779 +/- 0.011 mL in the sham trauma and from 0.0871 +/- 0.018 to 0.0748 +/- 0.017 mL in the trauma groups (p < 0.015) when the intracranial volume was reduced by 60 microL. Intracranial compliance was not affected significantly. The present study shows that it is possible to vary ICP dynamics in a traumatic brain injury model without causing pathological increases in baseline ICP. This model may be used to study the effects of secondary insults (i.e., hypotension, hypoxia, hypercarbia, and hyperthermia) on the injured brain when ICP is normal but intracranial compensatory volume is impaired.

Traumatic brain injury brief outcome interview

There is much evidence that deficits in physical and psychological functioning persist long after traumatic brain injury occurs. This paper presents a brief outcome interview (BOI) that can be administered in person or over the telephone, with evaluation of change in functioning in three areas: (a). occupational status, (b). mobility/activities of daily living (ADL), and (c). social relationships. Forty-four traumatic brain injury participants were evaluated at an average of 6.2 years postinjury with the present BOI as well as with the Glasgow Outcome Scale and Karnofsky Performance Scale (KPS). The BOI demonstrated strong concurrent validity with both scales, as well as strong test-retest reliability. IQ and memory scores obtained at an average of 4.1 months postinjury suggested that the injury was moderately severe. The average score on the GPS suggested "good recovery" and the average score on the KPS suggested "normal activity with effort, some signs or symptoms." These descriptions matched the BOI for the mobility/ADL dimension, for which all respondents reported some form of independent mobility, and 88.6% of the respondents reported no need for any kind of assistance in daily life functioning. However, significant long-term issues were seen for social and occupational functioning. Fifty-four percent said that they did not socialize as much as before their injury, and half of the participants reported not being involved in a romantic relationship in spite of an average age of 32 years. In terms of occupational status, 40.9% reported not working at all at any kind of job. Compared to before their injury, 47.7% said this was less time, 40.9% said that it was for a lower salary, and 54.5% said that their responsibilities were less. The stability of these social and occupational changes was indicated by high test-test reliabilities for the overall BOI score and the three subscale scores (r's ranged from.97 to 1.0). These stable long-term changes are consistent with some other studies and suggest that the social and occupational needs of this population warrant more attention.

Outcome after traumatic brain injury improved by an organized secondary insult program and standardized neurointensive care

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate today's refined neurosurgical intensive care of patients with traumatic brain injury after implementation of an organized secondary insult program focused on the importance of avoiding secondary brain damage together with a standardized treatment protocol system.

DESIGN

Clinical observational patient study.

PATIENTS

A total of 154 patients 16-79 yrs of age with acute head trauma and pathologic computed tomographic findings treated between 1996 and 1997.

SETTING

Neurointensive care unit.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Good recovery was obtained in 44% of the patients, moderate disability in 35%, severe disability in 16%, and no patient remained in a vegetative state. Six percent of the patients died, but only two of these patients (1.3%) died as direct result of their head injury. When the results for patients with Glasgow Coma Scale motor scores of >or=4 were compared with the periods 1980-1981 (preneurosurgical intensive care) and 1987-1988 (basic neurosurgical intensive care), mortality had decreased from 40% in the first period to 27% in the second period and to 2.8% in the present series. Favorable outcome in the same group of patients had increased steadily from 40% in the first period, to 68% in the second period, and finally, to 84% in the present series.

CONCLUSIONS

The main observation in this hospital series of traumatic brain injury patients was a low rate of death directly caused by head injury and a high rate of favorable outcome. The comparison of patients with Glasgow Coma Scale motor scores of >or=4 with the previously reported results from the same unit indicate that substantial improvement in outcome has been achieved.

Increased incidence and impact of nonconvulsive and convulsive seizures after traumatic brain injury as detected by continuous electroencephalographic monitoring

OBJECT

The early pathophysiological features of traumatic brain injury observed in the intensive care unit (ICU) have been described in terms of altered cerebral blood flow, altered brain metabolism, and neurochemical excitotoxicity. Seizures occur in animal models of brain injury and in human brain injury. Previous studies of posttraumatic seizures in humans have been based principally on clinical observations without a systematic approach to electroencephalographic (EEG) recording of seizures. The purpose of this study was to determine prospectively the incidence of convulsive and nonconvulsive seizures by using continuous EEG monitoring in patients in the ICU during the initial 14 days post-injury.

METHODS

Ninety-four patients with moderate-to-severe brain injuries underwent continuous EEG monitoring begin-ning at admission to the ICU (mean delay 9.6+/-5.4 hours) and extending up to 14 days postinjury. Convulsive and nonconvulsive seizures occurred in 21 (22%) of the 94 patients, with six of them displaying status epilepticus. In more than half of the patients (52%) the seizures were nonconvulsive and were diagnosed on the basis of EEG studies alone. All six patients with status epilepticus died, compared with a mortality rate of 24% (18 of 73) in the nonseizure group (p<0.001). The patients with status epilepticus had a shorter mean length of stay (9.14+/-5.9 days compared with 14+/-9 days [t-test, p<0.031). Seizures occurred despite initiation of prophylactic phenytoin on admission to the emergency room, with maintenance at mean levels of 16.6+/-2.8 mg/dl. No differences in key prognostic factors (such as the Glasgow Coma Scale score, early hypoxemia, early hypotension, or 1-month Glasgow Outcome Scale score) were found between the patients with seizures and those without.

CONCLUSIONS

Seizures occur in more than one in five patients during the 1st week after moderate-to-severe brain injury and may play a role in the pathobiological conditions associated with brain injury.

Increased incidence and impact of nonconvulsive and convulsive seizures after traumatic brain injury as detected by continuous electroencephalographic monitoring

Object

The early pathophysiological features of traumatic brain injury observed in the intensive care unit (ICU) have been described in terms of altered cerebral blood flow, altered brain metabolism, and neurochemical excitotoxicity. Seizures occur in animal models of brain injury and in human brain injury. Previous studies of posttraumatic seizures in humans have been based principally on clinical observations without a systematic approach to electroencephalographic (EEG) recording of seizures. The purpose of this study was to determine prospectively the incidence of convulsive and nonconvulsive seizures by using continuous EEG monitoring in patients in the ICU during the initial 14 days postinjury.

Methods

Ninety-four patients with moderate-to-severe brain injuries underwent continuous EEG monitoring beginning at admission to the ICU (mean delay 9.6 ± 5.4 hours) and extending up to 14 days postinjury. Convulsive and nonconvulsive seizures occurred in 21 (22%) of the 94 patients, with six of them displaying status epilepticus. In more than half of the patients (52%) the seizures were nonconvulsive and were diagnosed on the basis of EEG studies alone. All six patients with status epilepticus died, compared with a mortality rate of 18 (24%) of 73 in the nonseizure group (p < 0.001). The patients with status epilepticus had a shorter mean length of stay (9.14 ± 5.9 days compared with 14 ± 9 days (t-test, p < 0.03). Seizures occurred despite initiation of prophylactic phenytoin on admission to the emergency room, with maintenance at mean levels of 16.6 ± 2.8 mg/dl. No differences in key prognostic factors (such as the Glasgow Coma Scale score, early hypoxemia, early hypotension, or 1-month Glasgow Outcome Scale score) were found between the patients with seizures and those without.

Conclusions

Seizures occur in more than one in five patients during the 1st week after moderate-to-severe brain injury and may play a role in the pathobiological conditions associated with brain injury.

Economic aspects of capacity for work after severe traumatic brain lesions

During 1981-84,310 patients with severe traumatic brain lesions were treated at the Department of Neurosurgery in Lund, Sweden. A total of 161 patients were treated after the introduction of a more aggressive management protocol in 1983. In this first part of a long-term follow-up study we concentrate on the economic aspects. Two questions were addressed: first, what was the vocational outcome after severe head injuries? and second, what were the long-term effects of the new protocol? Out of 147 patients classified as good recovery/moderate disability (GR/MD) 6-months after injury, 106 patients agreed to participate in the study. Five to 8 years after injury 70 patients were classified as capable of working: 57 of these patients were actually at work, nine were studying and four were unemployed. Twenty-two patients had received disability pension and 14 patients had retired because of old age. In the age groups up to 60 years, 70% of patients had returned to work or school. The number of patients who returned to work was significantly higher after introduction of the more aggressive management protocol: 38 of 57 patients who had returned to work were in the group treated between 1983 and 1984. Mean income for patients who had returned to work was close to the average for the corresponding age groups in Sweden. Mean sick leave 5-8 years after severe head injuries was only slightly higher than average in Sweden. Our data show that a majority of the patients classified as GR/MD 6 months after severe traumatic brain lesions have the capacity to return to work. The improvements in the primary management of patients with severe head injuries introduced in 1983 increased the number of patients who work and thus increased the number of patients who favourably contributed to the economy of the community.

Psychosocial outcome 5-8 years after severe traumatic brain lesions and the impact of rehabilitation services

This study addresses three questions. First, what is the long-term psychosocial outcome for severely head-injured patients? Second, is an increased survival rate associated with an increase in the number of patients with a poor quality of life? Third, do rehabilitation services affect the final outcome? The long-term outcome was assessed by means of questionnaires for self-ratings, interviews with patients and relatives and neurophysical examinations. One hundred and six patients initially judged as good recovery/moderate disability (GR/MD) 6 months post-injury participated in the study. Forty to 50% of these patients showed co-ordination disturbances; more than 20% had speech disorders and cranial nerve deficits. Twenty-eight per cent had psychiatric symptom scores on the Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL) indicating need of treatment. Social function according to the Social Adjustment Scale--Self-Report (SAS--SR) showed that 40% had problems concerning interpersonal relations and 20-30% had problems within the field of leisure activities, but few problems were reported on work activities and economy. The Comprehensive Psychopathological Rating Scale (CPRS) revealed that hostile feelings, failing memory and fatiguability were common symptoms and were reported by relatives in 71%, 52% and 48%, respectively, but the mean distress levels were moderate. A correlation was seen between quality of life reported by relatives and the degree of mental and social disability according to the Bond Outcome Scale, but the correlation to neurophysical handicap was rather weak. The majority of patients were able to return to a productive social life. The proportion of patients with a poor long-term outcome did not increase after introduction of an aggressive management protocol for head injuries. Data indicated that improvements in facilities for rehabilitation may positively affect psychosocial adjustment.

Extradural haematoma: trends in outcome over 35 years

We have reviewed 35 years experience of extradural haemorrhage (EDH) in a large neurosurgical unit, based in two university hospitals, one dealing exclusively with children and the other a general hospital. A steady reduction in the mortality rate from 29 to 8.5% occurred during that period. A trend towards earlier diagnosis is noted and an increasing proportion of rural patients has been evident throughout the study period. During the time-period studied there were many significant developments: the establishment of a modern neurosurgical unit, the evolution of an intensive care unit, the availability of CT head scanning and the formal organization of rapid retrieval to service country areas. However, no single feature could be identified as the major contributor to falling mortality results. Clinical awareness and early diagnosis are the keys to successful management of EDH.

Management and outcome of severe head injuries in the Trent region 1985-90

In a five year period, 39 children (29 boys, 10 girls) aged 2 months to 13 years (mean 7.8 years) were studied who had suffered a major head injury (29 road traffic accidents, six falls, and four non-accidental injury). The injury had been assessed clinically and by cranial computed tomography or cranial ultrasound (in a single baby of 2 months). Initial Glasgow coma scores for all subjects ranged from 3-11 (mean 5.5), intact survivors 5-11 (7.4), minor handicap 4-11 (6.1), major handicap 3-6 (4.3), fatalities 3-6 (4.1). All were treated with sedation, paralysis, hyperventilation (arterial carbon dioxide tension 3.0-3.5 kPa), intracranial pressure monitoring and moderate body surface hypothermia to 32 degrees C. Nine children died and 30 survived (nine intact, 13 minor disability, and eight major disability). The worst cerebral perfusion pressure was over 40 mm Hg in all but one survivor, and less than 40 mm Hg in seven of nine fatalities. Severe hypocapnia both in the first 24 hours and overall was correlated with poor outcomes (dead or major disability), as were bilateral contusions or diffuse axonal injury.

Clinical outcome and cognitive impairment in patients with severe head injuries treated with barbiturate coma

This study reports on clinical outcome in 38 patients with severe head injuries (posttraumatic coma for 6 hours or more) treated with barbiturate coma because of intracranial hypertension. Eighteen patients died, 4 patients remained in a severely disabled or a chronic vegetative state, and 16 patients reached the levels good recovery/moderate disability. Six of these patients returned to work or school full time, 4 for half time and 3 were in a rehabilitation program. Fourteen patients were subjected to a comprehensive neuropsychological assessment. All patients except one exhibited varying degrees of cognitive dysfunction and 6 patients had signs of personality change. The quality of life for the majority of surviving patients was relatively good but the positive effects of barbiturate coma therapy in the age groups over 40 years appeared to be limited.

Complications and side effects during thiopentone therapy in patients with severe head injuries

This study reports all complications and side effects occurring in 38 patients with severe traumatic brain lesions treated with barbiturate coma because of a dangerous increase in intracranial pressure. The treatment was induced by intravenous infusion of thiopentone (5-11 mg.kg-1) followed by a continuous infusion of 4-8 mg.kg-1.h-1. The subsequent rate of thiopentone infusion was governed by the level of the intracranial pressure with the intention of keeping ICP below 20 mmHg (2.7 kPa). The duration of treatment was 1-15 days. Arterial hypotension occurred in 58%, hypokalemia in 82%, respiratory complications in 76%, infections in 55%, hepatic dysfunction in 87% and renal dysfunction in 47% of the patients. Twenty patients survived. Mortality in 17 patients was caused by an untreatable increase in intracranial pressure. In one patient complications due to barbiturate treatment may have contributed to the fatal outcome. In none of the other cases were the noted complications and side effects associated with any permanent symptoms or dysfunctions.

Neurosurgical intensive care improves outcome after severe head injury

The present study compares the clinical outcome, as expressed by the Glasgow outcome scale, of two groups of severely head injured patients treated before (49 patients) and after (72 patients) the establishment of a neurosurgical intensive care (NIC) unit at the department of neurosurgery. Uppsala University Hospital. The number of "good recoveries" increased significantly after the establishment of the NIC. This was confirmed by univariate analysis (p less than 0.05) and by multivariate analysis using the logistic regression model to adjust for differences between the two groups of patients (p less than 0.05, p less than 0.005). The most striking improvement was found in patients with a Glasgow coma motor score (GCSM) greater than or equal to 4 on admission. In this subgroup of patients the "good recoveries" increased from 15% to 52%. The object of NIC is basically to prevent or minimize secondary brain damage, and it seems logical that the effect of such care is most obvious in GCS M greater than or equal to 4 patients in whom a good outcome can be anticipated if secondary damage can be prevented or minimized. In conclusion, the present study shows that improved clinical outcome after severe head injury can be achieved by organizing an NIC unit with a well trained staff capable of providing this care 24 hours a day using established methods of surveillance and treatment.

Cerebral vasoreactivity and the prediction of outcome in severe traumatic brain lesions

Mean hemispheric blood flow (CBF) was studied in 38 comatose, severely brain-injured patients following intravenous administration of xenon-133. Repeated measurements were performed in order to evaluate cerebral vasoreactivity following a decrease in PaCO2. Simultaneously, arterial-venous oxygen differences (AVDO2) and intracranial pressure (ICP) were measured. An impaired CBF response to hyperventilation (delta CBF/delta PaCO2 less than 1.0) was obtained in 22 patients. Three of 16 patients with preserved CO2-reactivity died because of their brain injuries and 12 patients reached good recovery/moderate disability. In the group of patients with impaired vasoreactivity 11 of 22 patients died and only three patients reached good recovery/moderate disability. The study documents that in patients with severe traumatic brain lesions measurements of cerebral vasoreactivity to hyperventilation give prognostic information that is not obtained by clinical observations or CT-scanning.

Severe traumatic brain lesions in Sweden. Part 3: Economic aspects of aggressive neurosurgical intensive care

The present study had two main objectives: Firstly, to document the economic differences between 'ordinary' and 'aggressive' neurosurgical intensive care and secondly, to evaluate the medical benefits in relation to costs for different subgroups of head-injured patients. The study compares patients injured in traffic accidents and treated in the Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital of Lund, during 1977-1978 (n = 67) with similar patients treated during 1983-1984 (n = 87) after introduction of more vigorous neurosurgical intensive care. The economic analysis was performed by means of the CRISE-method (Cost Related Index Score Evaluation) and all costs were related to the monetary value in 1984. Adoption of a program for 'aggressive' neurosurgical intensive care increased the costs per treated patient by about 46% (from 70.887 Swedish Crowns (SEK) to 103.452 SEK). Mortality decreased significantly after the change in intensive care and the cost per surviving patient remained virtually unaffected (131.928 SEK vs. 132.357 SEK). Further, after introduction of the 'aggressive' programme a larger proportion of the economic expenditures were spent on patients who ultimately recovered well. It is concluded that the increase in costs following introduction of a more vigorous intensive care programme in patients with severe traumatic brain lesions is very reasonable in relation to the documented medical benefits.

Severe traumatic brain lesions in Sweden. Part I: Aspects of management in non-neurosurgical clinics

This paper reports a study of 587 consecutive patients treated for severe traumatic brain lesions (coma greater than 6 hours) during 1977-1984. Epidemiology, management and outcome were documented in 425 patients during the first part of the study (1977-1982) as a basis for future efforts at improvements. A total of 70-80 patients with severe head injuries were admitted annually to the Department of Neurosurgery in Lund and 88.6% of these patients were referred from 14 local hospitals, most of which are situated more than 50 km from Lund. Half of the patients were older than 40 years and 25% older than 60. Focal intracranial mass lesions were diagnosed in 64% of the patients. In the total study 41% of the patients were described as 'talk and deteriorate' and 13% as 'talk and die'. In 1983 a protocol for primary management was introduced in all local hospitals in the region. The management protocol caused a significant decrease (p less than or equal to 0.05) in the number of explorative craniotomies in local hospitals and a virtual disappearance of late surgical procedures (greater than 6 hours after injury). A fall was observed in the number of patients arriving at the Department of Neurosurgery with respiratory insufficiency. The study illustrates the epidemiology of severe head injuries in Sweden and the present state of management of these patients in non-neurosurgical departments. It is concluded that an overall outcome comparable to other reported series is also feasible in regions with a relatively sparse population and large geographical distances provided that strict recommendations for initial management are given to the local hospitals.